AP Psychology Vocabulary | Unit 1 | History and Approaches

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Experimental Psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Humanistic Psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

Cognitive Neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

Nature-Nurture Issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

Natural Selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Levels of Analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

Biopsychosocial Approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Behavioral Psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Biological Psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists)

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

Psychodynamic Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Social-Cultural Psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Personality Psychology

the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Educational Psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Human Factors Psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

Counseling Psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

Positive Psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population)

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to 1)

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Illusory Correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control Group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Placebo

given to create perception of treatment while not actually applying independent variable, part of control group

Independent Variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Dependent Variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Double-Blind Research

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Testing Effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

Descriptive Statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

Histogram

a graphical representation of the distribution of grouped data

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Skewed Distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

Inferential Statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Informed Consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants