Studied by 89 people
Empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
Structuralism
early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Functionalism
early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Experimental Psychology
the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
Humanistic Psychology
a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
Cognitive Neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
Nature-Nurture Issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
Natural Selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Levels of Analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
Biopsychosocial Approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
Behavioral Psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
Biological Psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists)
Cognitive Psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Evolutionary Psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection
Psychodynamic Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
Social-Cultural Psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
Developmental Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Personality Psychology
the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Social Psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Basic Research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Applied Research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Educational Psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
Human Factors Psychology
an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
Counseling Psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
Clinical Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
Positive Psychology
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
Critical Thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
Operational Definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
Case Study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic Observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Sampling Bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population)
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Correlation
a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to 1)
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)
Illusory Correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables
Experimental Group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
Placebo
given to create perception of treatment while not actually applying independent variable, part of control group
Independent Variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Confounding Variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
Dependent Variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Double-Blind Research
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Testing Effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
Descriptive Statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
Histogram
a graphical representation of the distribution of grouped data
Mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Skewed Distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal Curve
(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes
Inferential Statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Statistical Significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Informed Consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
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