Comprehensive Review of Psychology Concepts

A collection of flashcards based on key concepts, terminologies, and theories from psychology lecture notes for exam preparation.

What is an operational definition?

An operational definition specifies the procedures used to measure a variable.

What are the different research methods in psychology?

Case study, survey, observation, correlational, and experimental methods.

What is random sampling?

A technique used to ensure that every individual has an equal chance of being selected for a study.

What are positive and negative correlations?

A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other also increases; a negative correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

Does correlation indicate causation?

No, correlation does not imply causation.

What is random assignment?

Random assignment is the process of assigning participants to different groups using randomization.

What are IVs and DVs?

IVs are independent variables manipulated in an experiment, while DVs are dependent variables measured.

What is experimental control?

Procedures used to ensure that extraneous variables do not affect the outcome of an experiment.

What is a confound?

A confounding variable is an outside influence that affects the dependent and independent variables.

What is generalizability?

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to settings or populations outside the study.

What is myelin sheath?

A fatty layer that covers and protects axons and aids in the speed of neural impulses.

What is action potential?

A sudden reversal of the electrical charge of a neuron that initiates the transmission of a nerve impulse.

What is a synapse?

A junction between two neurons where communication occurs.

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

What are endorphins?

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood elevators.

What are agonists and antagonists?

Agonists mimic neurotransmitters; antagonists block their effects.

What are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

The sympathetic system prepares the body for fight or flight responses; the parasympathetic system conserves energy and promotes rest.

What is the endocrine system?

A system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

What is the pituitary gland?

The master gland that regulates other glands in the endocrine system.

What is fMRI?

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a technique for measuring brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

What is plasticity in the brain?

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections.

What are inattentional blindness and change blindness?

Inattentional blindness is the failure to see visible objects when attentions are directed elsewhere; change blindness is the failure to notice changes in the environment.

What is REM sleep?

Rapid Eye Movement sleep, a sleep stage where most dreaming occurs and the brain is highly active.

What was Piaget’s approach to cognitive development?

Piaget proposed that children move through stages of cognitive development through assimilation and accommodation.

What are the 4 stages of cognitive development according to Piaget?

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.

What is Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development?

Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and cultural tools in cognitive development.

What is the zone of proximal development?

The difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with guidance.

What is Erik Erikson’s stage theory of social development?

A theory that describes eight stages of psychosocial development from infancy to late adulthood, each characterized by a specific conflict.

What is attachment theory as studied by Mary Ainsworth?

Ainsworth identified various attachment styles including secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-anxious/ambivalent attachment.

What are Baumrind’s 4 parenting styles?

Authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and neglectful.

What is operant conditioning?

A learning process through which the effects of a behavior influence the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

What is reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic motivation is driven by internal rewards; extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards.

What is cognitive dissonance?

The mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds contradictory beliefs or values.

What is the bystander effect?

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.