Art History Final Terms + Definitions

Contrapposto

• sculptural pose where weight of body rests on one leg, makes hips and shoulders tilt in opposite directions

• creates natural and relaxed stance instead of rigid symmetry

• revived during italian renaissance from classical greek sculpture bc artists sought realism and ideal human proportions

• example: michaelangelo David, where figure stands with weight on right leg and left leg bends; creates a shift in hips and shoulders which produces contrapposto stance; pose makes david appear alive/alert and captures the moment before battle with goliath

woodblock printing/relief

• printmaking technique where artist carves away areas of a wooden block to leave raised surfaces

• ink is applied to raised surface and paper is pressed on top to create the image

• called relief panting bc printing surface is raised

• example: albercht durer, 4 horsemen of the apocalyspse

  • created using woodcut relief printing; technique allowed for the mass production of images → spread religious ideas

  • dramatic lins and dense composition show power of relief carving

engraving/intaglio

• printmaking process where artist cuts lines into a metal plate with a burin(special cutting tool)

• ink fills incised lines(areas carved to hold ink) and surface is wiped clean

• damp paper is pressed onto plate so paper pulls ink from grooves

• example: alberecht durer, melencolia I, an engraving that demonstrated extraordinary detail using intaglio to create fine lines, shading, and complex symbolism; printmaking became medium to demonstrate intellectual and philosphical ideals during renaissance like durer included math tools, geometric shapes, and symbolic references to explore relationship between art and humans

geometric(linear) perspective

• mathematical system to create illusion of three dimensional space on flat surface

• uses orthogonal lines(perpendicular lines) that converge on a vanishing point on the horizontal line

• example: masaccio, tribute money: one of the earliest renaissance frescos that use linear perspective; buildings and landscapes recede towards a vanishing point behind Christ’s head

  • linear perspective is used to organize composition bc theres multiple events happening in the painting

  • viewer’s attention is directed to christ since there’s a vanishing point behind him

  • creates spatial depth that makes the scene look 3 dimensional/realistic

atmospheric perspective

• technique where objects far away appear lighter, more detailed, and bluish

• mimics how atmospheric particles affect vision over distance

• example: leonardo da vinci mona lisa; landscape behind mosa lisa is blurrier/bluer in the distance which creates an illusion of vast depth behind the figure; demonstrates leonardo’s scientific study of optics

sfumato

• painting technique where tones and colors gradually blend into one another

• creates soft transitions without visible outlines

• “smoky” in italian

• example: leonardo da vinci, mona lisa: edges of faces and hands disolves softly into the shadow, creating mysterious expression(is she smiling or not) and lifelike skin tones

Vitruvian Man

• concept based on writings of roman architect vitruvius; argued that human body reflects ideal proportions of the universe

• renaissance artists used these ideas to explore perfect math ratios in the human body

• example: michaelangelo, David: sculpture demonstrates ideal human proportions inspired by classical theories of the body; reflects renaissance belief that the human body embodies universal harmony

horizon line

• line that represents eye level in perspective drawing

• vanishing point always sits on the horizon line

• example: masaccio, tribute money; horizontal line aligns with viewer’s perspective and helps organize the composition to create believable depth because masaccio placed objects relative to it; objects near horizon look far away while objects below the horizon look closer

isocephaly

• composition technique where figures’ heads are aligned at the same height

• used in medieval and early renaissance art to organize groups of figures

• example: masaccio, tribute money: apostles heads are placed at roughly the same height so they align across a horizontal line around christ, emphasizing him at the center of the scene

fresco

• painting technique where pigment is applied to wet plaster

• as plaster dries, paint becomes chemically bonded to the wall

• example: michelangelo last judgement, painted directly on the wall of the sistine chapel; image is a permanent part of the building; bc it covers the enter altar wall it fills the viewer’s field of vision and becomes part of the experience of chapel’s architecture; worshippers standing in chapel see painting as a part of the sacred space

oil painting

• painting technique where pigmens are mixed with oil(usually linseed oil)

• allows for slow drying, layering, and subtle blending of colors

• example: jan van eyck, giovanni arnolfini and his wife; oil painting allowed for extremely fine detail and luminous textures; the mirror, fabric, and reflection level of precision is only possible with oil painting

Guild

• organization of artisans that regulated training, quality, and comissions

• artists had to belong to a guild to sell their work in the city

• example: donatello, st. mark: commissioned by a florentine guild, placed in a niche (hollowed out area) on the exterior of Orsanmichele(florence church building); different guilds displayed statues of their patron saints, and the sculptures demonstrated the guilds’ wealth, power, and civic pride

ultramarine

• deep blue pigment made from ground lapis lazuli stone

• one of most expensive pigments in the renaissance

• example: jan van eyck, ghent altarpiece: virgin mary’s robe contains expensive ultramarine blue, demonstrating the wealth and devotion of patrons

iconographic analysis

• study of symbolic meaning in works of art

• interprets objects, gestures, and imagery using history and textual sources

• example: merode altarpiece: objects in the room symbolize theological ideas, lily=purity of mary, candle=incarnation, water pot= baptism; iconographic analysis reveals hidden religious meanings in everyday objects

mirhrab

• niche in the wall of a mosque indicating the direction of Mecca, towards which muslims pray

• example: great mosque of cordoba; mihrab marks the qibla wall(direction of prayer), is highly decorated with mosaics and calligraphy

macrocosm/microcosm

• microcosm: small universe inside humans (the mind, body, and intellect)

• macrocosm: the large universe (cosmos, nature, divine order)

• philosophical ideal that human mind(microcosm) reflects structure of universe(macrocosm)

• example: durer, melencolia I, engraving that features a winged figure surrounded by compass, polyhedron, and measuring tools that represent human attempts to understand cosmic order; figure is melancholic because it symbolizes human intellect (microcosm) struggling to understand larger universe(macrocosm)

genre painting

• paintings that depict scenes of everyday life instead of religious/mythological subjects

• example: pieter aertsen’s butcher stall; shows normal butcher stall in a market scene, but has small biblical scene in background that shows holy family giving food to poor, suggesting that people focus too much on material pleasures that they forget spiritual values like charity and humility

sprezzatura

• term from castiglione’s book of courter meaning effortless grace

• ideal courtier should appear naturally talented rather than striving

• example: sofonisba anguissola, self portrait at the easel; artist presents herself as calm, skilled, and refined; reflects the renaissance ideal of cultivated elegance

terribilita

• quality associated with michelangelo’s art that refers to awe-inspiring power and emotional intensity

• example: michelangelo’s last judgement: massive muscular figures and dramatic movement create overwhelming emotional effect

humanism

• intellectual movement that emphasizes classical learning, human potential, and individual achievement

• revived admiration of greek and roman art by humanists because it shows human body as strong, beautiful, and idealized

• example: michelangelo’s david: david is depicted as biblical hero, with detailed anatomy and contrapposto pose that reflects renaissance admiration for beauty/dignity of human body; shows david before battle with goliath, emphasizing human courage and individual potential

melancholia/melancholy

• melancholy was associated with creative genius and intellectual contemplation in renaissance

• example: durer, melencolia I: winged figure is interpreted as spiritual self portrait of artist as creative intellectual genius; represents their melancholic temperament and limitations of human creativity/knowledge

indulgence

• document issued by catholic church promising reduction of punishment for sins, obtained through acts of devotion/charity or financial contribution to church

• indulgences were often sold to raise money for churche

• example: german broadside depicted johann tetzel selling indulgences, with famous slogan that says as soon as someone paid money, a soul would be supposedly released from punishment; strongly criticized by martin luther and his objections spark protestant reformation

protestant iconoclasm

• destruction of religious animals by protestants who believed images were idolatrous

• example: franz hogenberge dutch calvinist iconoclasm, engraving shows mobs destroying church art and sculpture

reformation

• 16th century religious movement that challenged authority of catholic church

• led to creation of protestant churches

• began when martin luther posted the 95 thesis in 1517 criticizing indulgences

• example: dutch calvinist iconoclasm; shows how reformation led to violent destruction of catholic imagery in churches

counter-reformation

• catholic churches’s response to protestant reformation

• aimed to reform church practices and reaffirm catholic doctrine

• example: feast in the house of levi; church authorities questioned painting’s lack of religious decorum; shows how counter reformation led to greater control over religious imagery

mannerism

• style developed after high renaissance

• characterized by exaggerated anatomy, complex poses, dramatic emotional intensity, and artificial elegance

• example: last judgement; figures are elongated, muscular, and twisting in complex poses; reflects transition from high renaissance balance to mannerist tension and drama

paragone

• renaissance debate about which artistic medium is superior, specifically painting vs sculpture

• argued which medium could better represent reality, emotion, and human form

• painters argued painting could show color, atmosphere, and multiple viewpoints; sculptors argued that sculpture was three dimensional and physically real

• example: michelangelo’s david; michelangelo believed sculpture was highest artistic form, david demonstrates sculpture’s ability to show human body fully in space and this became key example in debates about the superiority of sculpture;s physical realism

contract

• legal agreement between patron and artist specifying details of an artwork comission

• contracts included subject matter, materials, size, deadlines, and payment

• used to ensure artists met patron’s expectations

• example: adoration of the magi, commissioned by a wealthy florentine patron palla strozzi for a church chapel; contract required expensive materials like gold leaf that demonstrated patron’s wealth

nominalism

• late medieval philosophical idea that universal concepts exist as names or mental ideas, not physical realities

• encouraged close observation and analyzing unique concrete things instead of hidden universal “essences”

• example: merode altarpiece, northern renaissance artists that emphasize small specific details of everyday objects; objects like lilies, candles, and water vessels were carefully rendered and the painter’s attention to individual details reflects nominalism’s emphasis on particular objects

telescopic/microscopic view

• terms used to describe two different ways artists depict the world

• telescopic view: seeing world on large scale like vast landscapes and distant space

• microscopic view: extremely detailed close observation of small objects

• example: giovanni arnolfini and his wife; painting contained incredibly detailed objects like mirror reflection, individual fairs in dogs fur, and fabric textures; details show microscopic view typical in northern renaissance art

satirical broadsides

• printed images or posters that criticized political or religious institutions using satire

• widely circulated during reformation because printmaking allowed images to spread quickly

• example: german broadside depicted johann tetzel selling indulgences, with famous slogan that says as soon as someone paid money, a soul would be supposedly released from punishment; strongly criticized by martin luther and his objections spark protestant reformation

sola fide

• latin for faith alone

• central doctrine of protestant reformers

• argued salvation comes through faith in god alone, not through good works or church rituals

• example: martin luther and the protestant reformation; luther argued indulgences and church rituals couldn’t save a person; only faith in christ could bring salvation

decorum

• principle that art should be appropriate to its subject and setting

• religious paintings should maintain dignity and reverence

• example: feast in the house of levi; painting shows clowns, soldiers, and drunken figures in a sacred scene; church authorities accused artist of violating decorum

Three magi/kings

• three wise men who traveled to bethlem to honor newborn christ, caspar, melchior, and balthazar

• each man represents different regions of the world

• example: adoration of magi, one king(balthazar) is depicted as african; reflects renaissance ideas about the global reach of christianity

council of trent

• catholic council held from 1545-1563 responding to protestant reformation

• established guidelines for religious art emphasizing clarity and devotion

• example: paolo veronese, feast in the house of levi; painting was questioned by irrelevant figures in a sacred scene