AP Psych (Cognition/Memory)

Memory

the persistence of learning over time; it is information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved. the persistence of learning over time; it is information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved. 

Encoding

where information is transformed into a format that can be processed in the brain

Storage

the process of retaining information in the brain over time

Retrieval

• the process of accessing & bringing stored information back into conscious awareness

Explicit Memories

involves conscious recall of facts and experiences.

• Requires some type of effort. This could be studying, retelling a story of the event etc.

Semantic Memory

recall of general facts and knowledge about the world.

Knowledge of concepts, words, symbols, and meanings.

Information is independent of personal experience and context. Things you learn in school, facts.

Episodic Memory

recollection of personal experiences and specific events.

• Remembers the "what," "where," and "when" of past experiences.

• Recalled from a first-person viewpoint.

Implicit Memories

This type of memory does not require conscious thought

Procedural Memory

 type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically. It includes:

• Skill-Based Actions: Such as driving, typing, or playing musical instruments.

Actions performed routinely without conscious thought.

Prospective Memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point. 

• (e.g., giving a message when you see someone).

Remembering to perform an action at a specific time (e.g., taking medication at noon).

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation. LTP is considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.

Multi-Store Model

describes memory as a three-part system that includes: 

• Sensory Memory

• Short-term Memory 

• Long-term Memory. 

Sensory Memory

1. the initial stage of memory 

2. sensory info is stored for a very brief period. 

Ex: Iconic and Echoic

Iconic Memory

Sensory input to the visual system,  duration of less than a second

Echoic Memory

Auditory information. It holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory

information held for about 15 to 30 seconds. It has a limited capacity. 

Long-Term Memory

information is stored indefinitely, with a virtually unlimited capacity

Working Memory

temporarily holding and manipulating information

Central Executive

the control center of working memory. Integrates info from our senses & long-term memory. 

• Essential for planning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Phonological Loop

component of Working Memory responsible for holding and rehearsing verbal info

It consists of two parts:

• Temporarily holds words and sounds for a few seconds.

• Rehearses and refreshes information through subvocal repetition.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

component of Working Memory that handles visual and spatial information. 

Enabling tasks such as:

• Navigation

• Geometry/Math 

Encoding

where information is transformed into a format that can be processed in the brain

Storage

• the process of retaining information in the brain over time.

Retrieval

• the process of accessing & bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.

Levels of Processing Model

proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered. 

 

Deeper Processing > Shallow Processing

Shallow/Automatic Processing

basic level of processing 

• focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words

• Involves Minimal Attention: Relies on repetition or simple recognition.

Structural

type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of information

Phonemic

shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information.

Deep/Effortful Processing

involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge. 

Semantic

Making meaning of item you are trying to remember

• Chunking

• Categories

• Hierarchies 

• Mnemonics

• Method of Loci

Chunking (Grouping)

memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units.

Categories (Grouping)

grouping related items together into categories. This process enhances memory by:

• Makes it easier to access information through associated links between items within the same category.

Hierarchies (Grouping)

organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels.

Mnemonics

techniques used to improve memory. They help in recalling information by associating it with cues like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes.

Method of Loci

mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations. It enhances memory by:

• Links information to visual representations of familiar locations.

• Allows for retracing the mental path through these locations to retrieve the associated information.

Serial Position Effect

usually recall the last words and first words best, forgetting the words in the middle 

• Primacy Effect, better recall of the first/beginning items from a list etc.

Recency Effect, better recall of the last/end  items from a list etc b/c still in working memory

Massed Practice “Cramming”

learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks. 

• This approach may yield quick results but is less effective for long-term memory retention compared to spaced practice.

Spacing Effect “Distributed Practice”

learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into one session. 

• Spacing study sessions allows for better consolidation of memories (short-term to long-term storage).  

Storage

Sensory memory, short term memory, working memory and long-term memory are processes that differ in storage duration, capacity and content

Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

VERY RARE and SPECIFIC

integrates the factual details of the episode (names, places) with personal emotional experiences.

It combines:

Episodic Memory and Semantic Memory

Maintenance Rehearsal

learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory.

• Effective for retaining information temporarily but less useful for long-term retention.

Elaborative Rehearsal

memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge. 

• Promotes stronger, more lasting memory storage by linking new information to prior knowledge.

Anterograde Amnesia

• memory disorder 

• inability to form new memories after event 

• Always living with short term memory

Older memories before the amnesia are preserved.

Anterograde Amnesia: Think 'A' for 'After'

H.M. Case Study

One of the most studied and influential cases in the field of neuroscience and psychology. His story sheds light on the role of the hippocampus in memory formation and has greatly contributed to our understanding of amnesia and the organization of memory in the brain.

Retrograde Amnesia

• memory disorder 

• loss of memories formed before the event that caused amnesia. 

Individuals can still learn new information and create new memories.

Remember 'R' for 'Retro in the Past'"

Infantile Amnesia

We cannot recall personal memories from before age 3-4. 

• Attributed to the ongoing development of the brain's memory systems, especially the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.

Retrieval Cues

stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind.

**sometimes the hardest part of memory is the accessibility, so we have to create and be aware of cues to help us.

Recall

memory retrieval without the aid of cues (retrieve information from memory spontaneously)

Ex: Fill in the blank tests/Essay questions

Recognition

memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented with aids to help:

Ex: Multiple Choice tests, remembering melody or lyrics but not the name of the song

Context-Dependent Memory

remember info better in the same environment where you first learned it. 

• Physical surroundings: Like being in the same room where you studied.

Similar conditions: Such as the same background noises or smells.

State-Dependent Memory

memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

Ex: Physical State: Such as being tired or energized. 

Mood-Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood. 

• Memories are more easily retrieved when they match the emotional state at the time of recall.

Metacognition

the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, especially in relation to learning and memory.

The Forgetting Curve

graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time. 

• Memory loss is fastest soon after learning, as the brain deems some information non-essential.

Encoding Failure

occurs when information does not enter long-term memory due to inadequate processing at the time of encoding.

• “In one ear and out the other” 

• We cannot learn or recall what we do not perceive and attend to

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it. 

Source Amnesia

the inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired (lost context), while retaining the factual knowledge.

Similar to Deja Vu!

Repression

distressing thoughts and memories are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness.

Serves to protect the individual from psychological distress by keeping painful memories out of the conscious mind.

Proactive Interference

Older memories interfere with retrieval of newer learning

Think 'P' for 'Prior' or 'Pre-existing'"

Retroactive Interference

Newer learning interfere with the retrieval of older memories

Remember 'R' for 'Recent'

Constructive Memory

the process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed. 

During memory consolidation, new memories can be integrated with existing memories, influenced by prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences

Imagination Inflation

imagining an event that never occurred can increase confidence that it did occur

Loftus and Palmer Study (1974-75)

• In the experiment, 45 students at the University of Washington were each shown films of traffic accidents. Following the video, participants wrote an account of the accident and answered questions.  The key question asked them to estimate the speed of the vehicles during the accident.  

Misinformation Effect

happens when new, incorrect information influences how we remember past events.