AP Psych Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

Attributions

Explanations for the causes of behaviors and events.

Dispositional attributions

Explaining behavior based on internal characteristics (e.g., personality, traits).

Situational attributions

Explaining behavior based on external factors (e.g., environment, circumstances).

Explanatory style

A person's habitual way of explaining life events.

Optimistic explanatory style

Attributing setbacks to external, unstable, and specific causes, leading to resilience.

Pessimistic explanatory style

Attributing setbacks to internal, stable, and global causes, leading to helplessness.

Actor/observer bias

attributing our own behavior to external factors but others behavior to internal factors

Fundamental attribution error

Overemphasizing dispositional factors while underestimating situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Self-serving bias

Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Internal locus of control

Belief that one controls their own fate.

External locus of control

Belief that outside forces determine one's fate.

Mere exposure effect

Increased liking of something due to repeated exposure.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When expectations influence behavior in a way that makes the expectation come true.

Social comparison

Evaluating oneself by comparing to others.

Upward social comparison

comparing to those perceived as better off which can be motivating or discouraging

Downward social comparison

Comparing to those perceived as worse off, often boosting self-esteem.

Relative deprivation

feeling disadvantaged when comparing to others who’s are better off

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people.

Cognitive load

The amount of mental effort required to process information.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a group and its members.

Discrimination

Unjustified negative behavior toward a group and its members.

Implicit attitudes

Unconscious beliefs or biases that influence behavior.

Just-world phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve, leading to victim-blaming.

Out-group homogeneity bias

The tendency to see members of an out-group as more similar than they really are.

In-group bias

favoring one’s own group over others

Ethnocentrism

Believing one's own culture is superior to others.

Belief perseverance

maintaining a belief even when contradictory information is presented

Confirmation bias

Seeking out information that confirms existing beliefs.

Cognitive dissonance

The discomfort felt when attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent, leading to attitude change.

Social norms

expected standards of behavior in a group or society

Social influence theory

The idea that people are influenced by the presence and behavior of others.

Normative social influence

conforming to be liked or accepted by a group

Informational social influence

Conforming because one believes others have accurate information.

Persuasion

The process of changing attitudes or beliefs.

Elaboration likelihood model

A theory of persuasion that suggests attitude change occurs via two routes.

Central route

persuasion based on logic and strong argument

Peripheral route

Persuasion based on superficial cues like attractiveness or celebrity endorsement.

Halo effect

The tendency to let an overall impression of someone influence judgments about their character.

Foot-in-the-door technique

gaining compliance with a small request first then making a larger request

Door-in-the-face technique

starting with a large request then following with a smaller request

Conformity

Adjusting behavior to align with group norms.

Obedience

Following direct commands, often from an authority figure.

Individualism

a cultural emphasis on personal goals and independence

Collectivism

A cultural emphasis on group goals and interdependence.

Multiculturalism

Recognizing and respecting diverse cultural identities.

Group polarization

When group discussions lead members to adopt more extreme positions.

Groupthink

When a desire for harmony in a group leads to poor decision-making.

Diffusion of responsibility

The tendency to feel less personal responsibility when others are present.

Social loafing

the tendency for people to exert less effort in group tasks

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness and self-restraint in group settings.

Social facilitation

Improved performance on simple tasks when others are watching.

False consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs.

Superordinate goals

shared goals that require cooperation between groups

Social traps

Situations where individuals act in self-interest, leading to collective harm.

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

Psychologists who apply psychological principles to the workplace.

Burnout

Chronic workplace stress leading to exhaustion and decreased motivation.

Altruism

Unselfish concern for the well-being of others.

Prosocial behavior

Positive, helpful social behavior.

Social debt

The idea that people feel obligated to return favors.

Social reciprocity norm

The expectation to return help to those who have helped us.

Social responsibility norm

The expectation to help those who depend on us.

Bystander effect

The tendency for people to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Psychodynamic theory

Freud's theory that unconscious motives shape behavior.

Unconscious processes

Mental processes that occur without conscious awareness.

Ego defense mechanisms

Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety.

Denial

refusing to accept reality

Displacement

Redirecting emotions toward a safer target.

Projection

Attributing one's own feelings to others.

Rationalization

Justifying behaviors with logical explanations.

Reaction formation

Acting opposite to one's actual feelings.

Regression

Reverting to earlier behaviors under stress.

Repression

Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts.

Sublimation

Channeling impulses into socially acceptable behavior.

Projective tests

Tests that reveal unconscious thoughts (e.g., Rorschach inkblot test).

Humanistic psychology

A perspective emphasizing personal growth and free will.

social cognitive theory

Albert Bandura, It emphasizes how people learn by observing others and how personal, behavioral, and environmental factors interact to influence behavior. It’s widely used in psychology, education, health promotion, and more.

reciprocal determinism

Behavior, personal factors (like cognitive skills or attitudes), and the environment all influence each other.

self concept

how one views themselves and in relation to others

self efficacy

A person’s belief in their own ability to succeed in specific situations. having high of this can boost motivation and resilience

self esteem

overall opinion a person has about themselves — how much they value, respect, and believe in themselves. It reflects how a person feels about their own worth and abilities.

Big Five theory of personality

OCEAN, psychological model that describes human personality using five broad traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. It is used to understand and measure the different ways people think, feel, and behave.

Unconditional positive regard

Accepting others without conditions.

Self-actualizing tendency

The drive to fulfill one's potential.

Drive-reduction theory

The idea that physiological needs create a drive that motivates behavior to restore balance.

Homeostasis

the body’s tendency to maintain internal stability

Arousal theory

The idea that individuals seek optimal levels of arousal.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

moderate arousal leads to optimal performance too much or too little impairs it

Self-determination theory

People are motivated by autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by internal rewards (e.g., enjoyment).

Incentive theory

Behavior is motivated by external rewards.

Extrinsic motivation

motivation driven by external rewards (ex: money)

Instincts

Innate biological behaviors.

Affect

The experience of emotion.

Physiological vs. cognitive experiences

Emotions involve bodily responses and cognitive interpretation.

Facial-feedback hypothesis

Facial expressions influence emotions.

Cognitive appraisal

Evaluating a situation to determine an emotional response.

Display rules

Cultural norms for expressing emotions.

approach-approach

A conflict between two desirable options. Example: Choosing between two fun vacation destinations — both are appealing, but you can only pick one.

approach-avoidance

A conflict where one option has both positive and negative aspects. Example: Wanting to eat cake (tastes good) but worrying about the calories (negative).

avoidance-avoidance

A conflict between two unattractive options. Example: Choosing between studying for a hard exam or doing unpleasant chores — both are undesirable, but a decision must be made.