Chapter 1: Alexander II, the Tsar Liberator

What was Alexander II like?

* emotionally swayed
* indecisive
* resentful of criticism
* better educated than his predecessors
* simple in his personal habits
* courageous in the face of danger

What was the nature of the Russian Tsar and government?

* Government was isolated form the people
* Tsars viewed themselves as benevolent patriarchs but they were actually tyrannical
* trying to modernise without damaging their autocratic position
* tolerated no individual thought

What were the peasants like?

* the most stable sector of society due to their commune and the unity they achieved as they followed Russian traditions

What were students like after the education reforms?

Nobility and lower classes mixed happily in universities, contrasting the hierarchal nature of Russian society

What were women like in Russia?

Feminism came to Russia in the 1850s and by Alexander’s counter-reforms, was well established. It was well-backed by the male intelligentsia as they were trying to get rights for everyone, not just men

Impact of the defeat in the Crimean War

This highlighted the backwards nature of 19th Century Russia. They had poor communication and were an underdeveloped, agrarian country. This lead to Alexander’s reforms.

Impact of the Emancipation of the Serf

This was Alexander’s most significant reform. Over 80% of the population were serfs so this reform affected the majority of the population. However, it was poorly executed and ended up not pleasing many people. Peasants still had to work for noblemen to be able to afford to survive and many noblemen couldn’t afford to pay for labour. The peasants also were forced into debt due to the cost of the land they were given.

Impact of the local government reforms

These reforms set up Zemstva's which are like district councils. This delegated power out to the local government creating better control as Russia is such a large country. The Zemstva built roads, hospitals and schools; improving the quality of life of the Russian people. 

Impact of the judicial reforms

These reforms set up a series of independent courts and judges which allowed peasants to speak against noblemen and present evidence or witnesses. Trial by jury was also introduced. There were separate courts for peasants however, this emphasised their lower class. Some courts, such as church and military remained outside of the judicial system.

Impact of the military reforms

The military reforms created a smaller, more professional army however was still dominated by the nobility and reliant on ill-educated peasants and conscripts.

Impact of the education reforms

These reforms saw an increase in those attending school and pursuing further eduction as there was a rise of independent universities. Students began to play a more significant part in society. An educated population is required for a modern state, however, they also didn’t want people questioning the regime. Students began to form their own views on the government and politics

Examples of Alexander’s counter reforms

Alexander’s last few years became riddled with terrorism. Alexander in response to the assassination attempt took power from liberal ministers including his own family. Censorship was increased along with tighter control of students. The military courts were also made use of more frequently for political cases as these weren’t open to reporters.

The Case of Vera Zasulich

* 1878
* she shot and wounded the gov. of St Petersburg which she admitted to. However, the jury accepted her plea that the act was politically justified so found her not guilty.
* Trepov was well known for being exceptionally cruel and flogged prisoners. The defence counsel had brought in political prisoners as witnesses (young, educated men who looked exhausted after imprisonment)
* The government never again risked a political case like this again

*krepostniki*

upholders of serfdom

The revolutionaries

* support came from students
* led by the flow of books and articles that were now accessible now that censorship had been relaxed
* the growing intelligentsia objected to the treatment of the masses
* the most notable group was ‘Land and Liberty’
* the strong crackdown in universities, tightening of censorship and the wave of arrests just caused more people to radicalise

The populists/narodniks

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* ‘going to the People’ movement
* they believed in agrarian socialism based around the peasants’ commune


* Several thousand m/c people dressed up in peasants’ clothes and went into villages
* village elders and priests reported them to the police leading to several hundred being arrested
* **Trial of the 50: 1877, of the populists**
* **Trial of the 193: 1877, of the populists**
* Some got light sentences or were acquitted, however, the government intervened and exiled many to Serbia

The revolutionaries regroup

* Ait was clear that peaceful persuasion wasn’t going to work as the peasants were too conservative
* Land and Liberty reformed with a strong central organisation and a ‘commitment to secrecy and discipline’
* cells were formed in villages and supported demonstrations which often turned violent
* many also killed informers and despotic officials
* political trials were moved to military courts
* led to a split in the group

The Black partition

* led by George Plekhanov and Vera Zasulich


* promoting revolution through peaceful agitation

The people’s will

* use terrorist violence to achieve revolution
* focussed on the assassination of Alexander II
* 1879 - condemned him for ‘crimes against the people’

What did Alexander Herzen say about revolution?

believed the commune’s attributes prepared people for socialism and that Russia might be able to skip capitalism altogether

What did Peter Lavrov say and who did he influence?

influenced the populists and maintained the view that intellectuals owed their education to the toil of the masses

What did George Plekhanov say about revolution?

after the failure of the Narodniks said that capitalism was already in Russia so revolutionaries should place their faith in the urban working class and look to Marxism 

Was Alexander intending to make more liberal concessions?

Loris-Melikov, minister of the interior, thought the regime needed to take steps to strengthen the people’s trust in the government He proposed:

* abolished the third section and transferred its function to the Ministry of the Interior; focusing on truly dangerous people rather than having thousands under surveillance
* proposed more civil rights for the peasants to help make it easier for them to acquire land
* proposed that elected representatives of the Zemstva and larger towns form part of a consultative body to help in the making of laws

Alexander gave preliminary approval but it got no further as Alexander was shot

What was Russia like in the mid-nineteenth century?

backwards, agrarian, underdeveloped, with poor communications

What was the governmental structure?

* governed by an autocracy ruled by the tsar at the head of a large, inefficient bureaucracy which made use of secret police to maintain control

What was the impact of the Crimean War?

* this highlighted Russia’s backwardness and prompted the new reforms