Philosophy and Ethics: Arguments, Virtue, Kant, Utilitarianism, and Medical Ethics

What is a valid argument?

the conclusion logically follows from the premises.

What is a sound argument?

a valid argument with all true premises.

How do you determine whether an argument is valid?

depends on the structure, not the truth of the statements.

What are the six kinds of psychological limitations that interfere with assessments of information?

1. Skepticism toward contrary evidence 2. Confirmation bias 3. Disconfirmation bias 4. Motivated reasoning 5. Availability error 6. Dunning-Kruger effect

What is required for moral excellence according to Aristotle?

doing the right thing, for the right reason, and with the right emotion.

What is Aristotle's doctrine of the mean?

Virtue is the mean between two extremes of excess and deficiency.

What are the central claims of virtue ethics?

developing a virtuous character, with moral actions coming from good judgment, right action, and proper emotion.

What criticism has been raised about following the judgments of virtuous people?

Critics question whether we should focus on the reasons behind their actions rather than merely imitating them.

What does situationism in psychology challenge about virtue ethics?

behavior often depends more on circumstances than on stable character traits.

What is required for an action to have moral worth according to Kant?

if it's done from duty, not from desire or emotion.

What is the categorical imperative?

act only on a rule that you can will to become a universal law.

What does the formula of humanity mean?

It means to treat every rational being as an end in themselves and never merely as a means.

What criticism do virtue ethicists raise against Kant's account of moral worth?

They say Kant's view is too rigid because it dismisses emotions.

What moral status does Kant's ethics imply for non-rational beings?

Kant's theory gives it only to rational beings, excluding animals and those who cannot reason.

What is consequentialism?

judges actions by their outcomes.

What is utilitarianism?

says the best action produces the greatest overall good.

What is hedonic utilitarianism?

defines good as maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.

What is the principle of utility?

Act to create the greatest amount of happiness and the least amount of suffering for the greatest number of people.

What is the swine morality objection?

It says focusing only on pleasure makes humans no better than animals.

How does John Stuart Mill respond to the swine morality objection?

higher intellectual and moral pleasures are more valuable than bodily pleasures.

What problematic implications does hedonic utilitarianism have for distributive justice?

It can justify unfair outcomes if they increase total happiness.

What is paternalism in a medical context?

when someone overrides another's choice for their own good.

What is a sufficient justification for acting paternalistically according to Gerald Dworkin?

only if it preserves or expands the person's future ability to make free, rational choices.

What is privacy according to James Rachels?

control over who can access you and your personal information.

Why is privacy important?

It allows people to manage relationships, maintain autonomy, and shape their identity.

What is informed consent in medical contexts?

the process of obtaining permission from a patient before conducting a healthcare intervention.

What are the three legally competing accounts of what it means for a patient to be informed?

1. The professional standard, 2. The reasonable person standard, 3. The subjective standard.

Why do some ethicists think randomized clinical trials are morally problematic?

Some argue that control groups may not receive the best treatment.

How do some ethicists respond to concerns about randomized clinical trials?

They argue that if the treatment's value is unknown, no group is worse off, and participation is ethical if consent is informed and voluntary.

Why are Dr. Saul Krugman's experiments on children at Willowbrook State Hospital relevant to animal vivisection debates?

Tom Regan argues they violated the children's rights, showing moral worth isn't based on intelligence, thus harmful research on animals is also wrong.

What is Don Marquis's argument against abortion?

because it deprives the fetus of a valuable future, making it morally similar to killing an adult.

What is Judith Jarvis Thomson's thought experiment about the unconscious violinist?

Thomson imagines being connected to a violinist whose life depends on your body, illustrating that a fetus doesn't have the right to use a woman's body without consent.

What does the 'principle of potentiality' state in the abortion debate?

It claims a fetus has a right to life because it will become a person.

What criticism does Bonnie Steinbock raise against the principle of potentiality?

She argues that a potential person is not an actual person and does not have rights.

What are the three distinct kinds of parenting relations possible with surrogacy according to Vaughn?

Genetic parenting (providing sperm or egg), gestational parenting (carrying the pregnancy), and social parenting (raising the child).

Why does Elizabeth Anderson argue that commercial surrogacy commodifies children?

It treats children like market goods by turning parental rights into property rights.

arguments points: P3&P6- Why does Elizabeth Anderson argue that commercial surrogacy commodifies children?

Commercial surrogacy transforms parental rights into property rights, & Substituting market norms for parental norms entails treating the child as a commodity.

What is euthanasia?

causing or allowing someone's death for that person's sake.

What is the difference between active and passive euthanasia?

Active euthanasia directly causes death; passive euthanasia lets someone die by withholding treatment.

What are the types of euthanasia?

Voluntary, nonvoluntary, and involuntary euthanasia.

What are two reasons in favor of active voluntary euthanasia according to Vaughn?

respect for autonomy and relief of severe suffering (beneficence).

What is a standard reason against active voluntary euthanasia?

the belief that killing is morally worse than letting die (nonmaleficence) & the obligation to do no harm

Why does Norman Daniels argue that every person has a right to health care?

Illness reduces a person's fair chance to pursue life opportunities. Health care restores normal functioning, which protects equal opportunity. Therefore, everyone has a right to it.

What contradiction exists regarding health care professionals and racial disparities in health care?

Health professionals claim to be fair and altruistic, yet racial minorities receive poorer-quality care even after accounting for income or insurance

How do some theorists explain the contradiction in health care professionals' attitudes?

Through implicit bias—unconscious attitudes that affect behavior despite a conscious commitment to equality.

Why do some health care professionals use race in treatment decisions?

Some medical guidelines still include race as a variable, reflecting outdated assumptions rather than genuine medical necessity.