Unit 2: Cognition

AP Psych

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events. 

• It's a crucial step in cognition, allowing us to understand and interact with the world around us. 

Bottom-Up Processing

is a way our brain makes sense of information by starting with the small details and then building up to a complete perception.

• It's our cognitive system taking sensory input and assembling it into something we can understand, without prior knowledge or expectations influencing the process.

Top-Down Processing

involves interpreting sensory information based on the larger context, prior knowledge, and expectations.

• It's how our brain uses overarching concepts and experiences to guide our understanding of the details, shaping perception from the general to the specific.

Selective Attention

the process of focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring others. 

• It allows us to prioritize sensory information that is most relevant to our current goals or tasks, playing a key role in how we perceive and interact with our environment.

Cocktail Party Effect

our ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like a crowded party, while tuning out other stimuli.

• Our perception can be directed to what we find most relevant or interesting. 

• Specific example of selective attention in an auditory context

Change Blindness

the failure to notice large changes in one's environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption.

• Illustrates the limits of our visual perception and attention, showing that our awareness of changes in our surroundings is often less acute than we might assume.

Schemas

mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information in the world around us. 

• They influence perception by shaping our expectations and guiding our attention. 

Perceptual Set

a tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others.

• It's influenced by our expectations, experiences, and context, shaping our perception by predisposing us to see what we expect to see.

Gestalt Psychology

we perceive whole objects or figures (gestalts) rather than just a collection of parts. 

• It suggests that our brains are wired to see structure, pattern, and organization in the world, guiding how we interpret sensory information and experience perception.

Figure-Ground

refers to the ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its surroundings (ground).

• It involves the brain's organization of sensory information, highlighting important stimuli while filtering out irrelevant background details.

Binocular Depth Cues

visual information that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

• These cues help us perceive the world in three dimensions.

Retinal Disparity

when each eye sees a slightly different picture because of their separate positions on our face. 

• Our brain uses these differences to figure out how far away things are, helping us see the world in 3D.

Convergence

when our eyes move inward toward each other to focus on a close object. 

• This eye movement helps us understand how near something is, aiding in our perception of depth.

Monocular Depth Cues

visual indicators of distance and space that can be perceived using just one eye. 

• Monocular Cues help us understand how far away things are (depth).

Relative Clarity

a depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed are perceived as closer, while objects that are hazier or less clear seem farther away. 

• This helps us gauge distance and depth in what we see.

Relative Size

a visual cue where objects closer to us appear larger, while objects further away appear smaller. 

• Our brain uses this difference in size to help determine the distance between objects and how far away they are from us.

Texture Gradient

the way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the distance. 

• This cue helps us understand depth, as closer objects have clearer, more distinguishable textures, while further objects appear smoother and less detailed.

Linear Perspective

a depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance. 

• This visual phenomenon helps our brain perceive depth, allowing us to judge how far away objects are based on how the lines come together.

Interposition

occurs when one object overlaps another, leading us to perceive the overlapping object as closer. 

• This simple visual cue helps us understand the arrangement of objects in space, contributing to our depth perception. 

Perceptual Constancies

our brain's ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina (like size, shape, or color) changes. 

• This helps us recognize objects under different conditions, maintaining a stable perception of the world.

shape Constancy

our ability to perceive an object as having the same shape, even when our angle of view or the distance from which we see the object changes.

• This helps us recognize objects regardless of the perspective from which we view them.

Size Constancy

our perception that an object remains the same size, even when its distance from us changes, causing the image on our retina to grow or shrink.

• This allows us to accurately judge the size of objects regardless of changes in their apparent size due to distance.

Color Constancy

ability to perceive colors of objects as stable under varying lighting conditions.

• This means that even when the lighting changes, we still see the object as having the same color, helping us identify and differentiate objects in our environment consistently

Apparent Movement

the perception of motion when there isn't any actual movement. 

• It's how we see still images, like in animations or movies, as moving. This occurs when our brain fills in the gaps, creating the illusion of motion from a series of still images.

memory

the persistence of learning over time; it is information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved. 

Encoding

the first stage of memory, where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain.

storage

the process of retaining information in the brain over time.

retrieval

the process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.

Multi-Store Model

describes memory as a three-part system that includes: Sensory Memory,  Short-term Memory & Long-term Memory. 

Sensory Memory

the initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period. It acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and retains impressions of these stimuli for a few seconds at most

iconic memory

type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images. It captures a precise copy of a visual scene for a fraction of a second before it fades. 

• This allows the brain time to process and potentially transfer visual information to short-term memory.

echoic memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory information. It holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds, allowing the brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli.

Short-Term Memory

 temporarily holds a small amount of information, typically for about 15 to 30 seconds. It has a limited capacity. 

Long-Term Memory

 the stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely, with a virtually unlimited capacity. It allows for the long-term retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts.

Working Memory

form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information. Short-term and long-term memories combine.

central executive

the control center of working memory. It manages attention, coordinates other memory components, and integrates information from our senses and long-term memory.

• This component is essential for tasks like planning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Phonological Loop

component of Working Memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information. It consists of two parts:

• Temporarily holds words and sounds for a few seconds.

• Rehearses and refreshes information in the phonological store through subvocal repetition.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

component of Working Memory that handles visual and spatial information. It allows for the temporary storage and manipulation of images and spatial relationships, enabling tasks such as:

• Navigation

• Geometry

• Visual tracking

• Manipulating objects

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation. ______ is considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.

Effortful Processing

type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory.

• Actively focusing on and thinking about the material.

Automatic Processing

the unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks.

• Information is processed automatically without deliberate attention.

Levels of Processing Model

proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered. 

• This model argues that the deeper the processing, the more connections are made within the brain, thereby enhancing the likelihood of recalling information later.

Shallow Encoding

a basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words, without engaging with its meaning. 

• Involves Minimal Attention: Relies on repetition or simple recognition.
  Leads to Fragile Memories: Results in memories that are less likely to be retained over time.

Structural

type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of information.

Phonemic

shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information.

Deep Encoding

involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge. This type of encoding:

• Analyzes the significance and implications of information.

• Creates durable and easily retrievable memories.

Chunking (Grouping)

memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units. This technique helps to:

• By organizing information into chunks, more items can be held in short-term memory.

• Makes it easier to remember and retrieve information by reducing cognitive load.

Categories (Grouping)

 method of organizing information by grouping related items together into categories. This process enhances memory by:

• Helps structure information in a more logical way

• Makes it easier to access information through associated links between items within the same category.

Hierarchies (Grouping)

organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels. This method enhances memory by:

• Facilitates efficient search and recall through a structured format.

• Helps in understanding complex relationships between concepts by viewing them in a layered approach.

Mnemonics

 techniques used to improve memory. They help in recalling information by associating it with simple cues like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes. 

• These tools make it easier to retrieve information from memory by providing a mental shortcut.

Method of Loci

 mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations. It enhances memory by:

• Links information to visual representations of familiar locations.

• Allows for retracing the mental path through these locations to retrieve the associated information.

Explicit Memories

involves conscious recall of facts and experiences

Semantic Memory

 type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world.

• Knowledge of concepts, words, symbols, and meanings.

• Information is independent of personal experience and context.

Episodic Memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events.

• Remembers the "what," "where," and "when" of past experiences.

• Recalled from a first-person viewpoint.

Autobiographical Memory

 type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individual's own life. It combines:

• Episodic Memory: Personal experiences with specific contexts and emotions.

• Semantic Memory: General personal information and knowledge that defines the self.

Implicit Memories

This type of memory does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically.

Procedural Memory

 type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically. It includes:

• Skill-Based Actions: Such as driving, typing, or playing musical instruments.

• Actions performed routinely without conscious thought.

Prospective Memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point.

• Remembering to perform an action triggered by specific cues (e.g., giving a message when you see someone).

• Remembering to perform an action at a specific time (e.g., taking medication at noon).

Massed Practice “Cramming”

learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks. 

• This approach may yield quick results but is less effective for long-term memory retention compared to spaced practice.

Spacing Effect “Distributed Practice”

the phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into one session. 

• _________ study sessions allows for better consolidation of memories (short-term to long-term storage). 

Maintenance Rehearsal

learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory.

• Effective for retaining information temporarily but less useful for long-term retention.

Elaborative Rehearsal

memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge. 

• Promotes stronger, more lasting memory storage by linking new information to prior knowledge.

Retrieval Cues

stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind. They play a critical role in the process of retrieving memories and can be:

• External Cues: Environmental factors or objects that trigger memories

• Internal Cues: Thoughts or feelings associated with the original learning.

Recall

type of memory retrieval that involves accessing information without the aid of cues (retrieve information from memory spontaneously.)

Recognition

type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented. It includes:

• Familiarity: Sensing that something has been encountered before.

• Identification: Matching new information with stored knowledge (e.g., recognizing the correct answer on a multiple-choice test).

Context-Dependent Memory

when you remember information better in the same environment where you first learned it. 

• Physical surroundings: Like being in the same room where you studied.

• Similar conditions: Such as the same background noises or smells.

State-Dependent Memory

the phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

• Physical State: Such as being tired or energized.

• Emotional State: Such as being happy or sad.

Mood-Congruent Memory

 the tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood. 

• Memories are more easily retrieved when they match the emotional state at the time of recall.

• This can lead to a selective recall of memories that reinforce one's mood, either positive or negative.

Serial Position Effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle.

Primacy Effect

cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to remember items presented at the beginning of a list better than those that follow.

• Items presented first can be rehearsed more as the list continues, allowing them to be more deeply encoded into long-term memory.

Recency Effect

phenomenon observed in memory recall where the most recently presented items in a list are recalled more clearly and accurately than the items in the middle.

• Items at the end of a list are still in short-term memory at the time of recall, making them more accessible.

Testing Effect

phenomenon where long-term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing.

Metacognition

the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, especially in relation to learning and memory.

Self-Monitoring

Assessing one's own learning and memory processes, such as knowing when one knows something or not.

The Forgetting Curve

graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time. 

• Memory loss is fastest soon after learning, as the brain deems some information non-essential.

Encoding Failure

occurs when information does not enter long-term memory due to inadequate processing at the time of encoding. 

• Failure to focus adequately on the material prevents the formation of strong memory traces.

• Not linking new information to existing knowledge can hinder its transfer to long-term memory.

Proactive Interference

occurs when older memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new information.

• Think 'P' for 'Prior' or 'Pre-existing'"

• Using an old password or email instead of your new one

• Driving down a familiar but now incorrect street

Retroactive Interference

occurs when new learning impairs the recall of previously encoded information. Especially impactful when the old and new information are closely related.

• Learning a new student ID # and forgetting the old one

• Learning new music and forgetting the old music

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

common memory experience where an individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it. 

• The correct information usually surfaces after a short delay.

Source Amnesia

the inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired (lost context), while retaining the factual knowledge.

Anterograde Amnesia

memory disorder characterized by an inability to form new memories following the onset of the amnesia, although memories from before the event remain intact.

Retrograde Amnesia

memory disorder that involves the loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia. 

• Individuals can still learn new information and create new memories. 

Infantile Amnesia

he phenomenon where people cannot recall personal memories from the early years of life, typically before age 3-4. 

• Attributed to the ongoing development of the brain's memory systems, especially the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.

Alzheimer’s Disease

progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes.

Constructive Memory

the process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed.

• During memory consolidation, new memories can be integrated with existing memories, influenced by prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences.

Imagination Inflation

imagining an event that never occurred can increase confidence that it did occur

Misinformation Effect

happens when new, incorrect information influences how we remember past events. 

• New details can distort or replace parts of the original memory.

• People may remember the false information instead of what actually happened.

• This effect is important for understanding eyewitness accounts and the reliability of memory.