AP Psych Complete Review

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Peer Reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy

Theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Meta Analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

Population vs Sample

The population is the whole group while a sample are parts of the population.

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Convenience Sampling

using a sample of people who are readily available to participate

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Regression Towards the Mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

Independent vs Dependent Variable

An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.

Control vs Experimental Group

the experimental group is the group that is tested on, compared to the control group (the one that isn't tested on)

Single Blind Procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

Double Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Quantitative vs Qualitative research

Quantitative research measures differences in amount of behavior.

Qualitative research describes differences in kind or quality of behavior.

Institutional Review

process of examining studies for ethical concerns by a committee of peers

Informed Consent and Assent

Formal action of consenting to counseling which serves as an agreement between all parties involved that they understand what will happen in counseling

Protection from Harm

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals

Confidentiality

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Mode, Mean, Median

Mode is the most frequent
Mean the average
Median is the midpoint

Percentile Rank

the percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores

Skewed Distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve

the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes
1st-68%, 2nd- 95%

Meta-Analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Effect Size

the magnitude of a relationship between two or more variables

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

Biological Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.

Cognitive Perspective

how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

Humanistic Perspective

the psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices

Psychodynamic Perspective

how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

Sociocultural Perspective

perspective that focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture

Evolutionary Perspective

perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share

Cross Sectional Study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Longitudinal Study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Nature vs Nurture

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

Central Nervous System

consists of the brain and spinal cord

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Autonomic Nervous System

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Sympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Glial Cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Reflex Arc

A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.

Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

All-or-Nothing Principle

The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity.

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Myasthenia Gravis

a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles

Leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Acetylcholine

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

Adrenaline

A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress

Psychoactive Drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Agonist vs Antagonist

Agonist: medication binds to the same site as an endogenous substance (e.g., neurotransmitter) to produce similar response
Antagonist: Medication binds to a receptor and thus, prevents the binding and action of an agonist

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Nueroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

Corpus Callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Reticular Formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Broca's Area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Left vs Right Brain

left = math and logic, speech
right = imagination and creativity, music, facial recognition, spacial awareness

Circadian Rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle