Paper 2: human relationships

Psychology IB paper 2 human relationships SL/HL APFC stands for Aims, Procedure, Findings and Conclusion.

Define relationship

A close association, interaction or bond between individuals

Define communication

The imparting/ exchanging of information by speaking, writing or using some other medium

What fact could back up the importance of relationships in the intro paragraph of an essay?

Loneliness is as strong a risk factor for mortality in the elderly as obesity, smoking or lack of physical activity (according to a study by Luo et al, 2012)

Which two theories can be used for the role of communication in relationships?

Oxytocin, four horsemen of the relationship apocalypse

Which studies can be used for communication in relationship?

Ditzen et al (2009), Gottman and Levenson (2000)

Ditzen et al (2009) APFC:

A: To investigate the possible role of oxytocin in how couples diagnose a contentious issue.

P: 47 heterosexual couples did a double blind placebo, receiving placebo or oxytocin nasally. They were videotaped in a lab discussing a conflict-inducing topic. The tape was coded and analysed. The couples’ saliva was continuously tested for cortisol levels.

F: Oxytocin improved pos communication and lowered cortisol compared to the placebo

C: A possible role of oxytocin in humans is facilitating pair bonding behaviour

Ditzen (2009) critical thinking

Low ecological validity as participants knew they were being observed; friendliness bias, demand characteristics

Cannot be generalised to online relationships, platonic or familial relationships, or homosexual romantic relationships

What research method was used by Ditzen (2009)

Lab experiment

Which two theories can be used to explain the change and end of relationships?

Fatal attraction theory, the four horsemen of the relationship apocalypse

What are the four horsemen of the relationship apocalypse?

1. Criticism
2. Contempt
3. Defensiveness
4. Stonewalling

Criticism

Different from voicing a complaint or offering a complaint, criticism is an attack on the individual themself rather than on any specific behaviour.

Contempt

Contempt is treating the other person with disrespect, using sarcasm and ridicule as well as body language (like scoffing or eye rolling) to mock them

Defensiveness

Typically a response to criticism, defensiveness is an attempt to shift blame onto the other person and a refusal to take responsibility for personal actions

Stonewalling

The listener withdraws from the interaction, shuts down, and stops responding to their partner

Who came up with the four horsemen theory?

Gottman

What research can be used for the four horsemen?

Gottman and Levenson (2000)

Gottman and Levenson (2000) APFC:

A: Investigate whether it’s possible to create a mathematics of love by analysing patterns of communication

P: A mixed-methods longitudinal subject. 79 USA couples answered surveys on satisfaction levels, and researchers performed a coded observation on 15-minute conversations about the events of a day, a pleasant topic and a conflict issue.

F: They predicted divorce by 14 years later with 93% accuracy. Presence of the horsemen was a strong predictor of divorce in the early years, not a predictor of divorce later.

C: Communication patterns are a strong predictor of the success of a relationship.

What research method did Gottman and Levenson (2000) use?

Observation (overt, controlled, non-participant)

Gottman and Levenson (2000) critical thinking

Cannot be generalised to platonic/familial relationships, online relationships or homosexual romantic relationships

Who invented fatal attraction theory?

Felmlee

What is fatal attraction theory?

The theory that the traits that initially attracted us to our partner may end up becoming the reason that the relationship ends

What are the three common characteristics seen in ‘fatal attraction‘ breakups?

• Fun to foolish

• Spontaneous to unpredictable

• Strong to domineering

Which study can be used to explain fatal attraction theory?

Felmlee (1995)

Felmlee (1995) APFC:

A: To investigate the fatal attraction hypothesis

P: 301 college students self-reported the qualities that had first attracted them to a recent partner and then to list the qualities that they least liked in that person

F: 29.2% of breakups were “fatal attractions“

C: Lends support to the fatal attraction hypothesis

Felmlee (1995) critical thinking

-Only a very small percentage of participants (less than 30%) actually experienced fatal attraction so it may not even be a significant factor

-Felmlee was trying to prove her own theory. There was no theoretical triangulation used to explain the results.

-Self-report methods may lack internal validity

-Quite reductionist

What research method was used by Felmlee (1995)?

Questionnaire

Which piece of research can be used to support the idea that men and women use communication differently?

Tannen (1990)

What does Tannen’s study (1990) say about the differences in how men and women communicate?

Men typically interrupt more and expect their conversational partner to do the same

Women tend to be more inclusive, asking the other person’s opinion more

Women are more active listeners using conversational tage such as “uh-huh?” more frequently to encourage the other person

Which two theories can be used for biological explanations for the formation of relationships?

Sexual selection and neurochemistry cocktail

What are MHC genes?

Major histocompatibility complex genes determine which pathogens an individual can identify. Parents with more diverse MHC genes have offspring with better immune systems.

Which study can be used to support biological explanations in partner selection?

Wedekind - MHC genes (1995) and Fisher et al- neurochemistry cocktail (2005)

Wedekind (1995) APFC:

A: to determine whether MHCs would affect mate choice

P: 49 females were asked to sniff three shirts from males with different MHC genes, three shirts from males with similar MHCs and one control shirt. The 44 males who provided the shirts were asked to refrain from smoking, alcohol, spicy food, and sex for two days.

F: women scored male body odours as more pleasant when MHCs were different from their own.

C: supports the idea that partner selection can be influenced by biological factors.

Wedekind (1995) critical thinking

The study has been successfully replicated in humans and mice. (Beer 1985)

What research method did Wedekind use?

Quasi-lab experiment

Which hormones and neurotransmitters are involved in Helen Fisher’s “neurochemistry cocktail“?

Dopamine(nt): feel-good reward nt responsible for motivation

Noradrenaline(nt): helps control emotions and stress- increased attentiveness to new partner, stimulates excitement and release of adrenaline

Serotonin(nt): Serotonin levels drop when we fall in love which can cause obsessive thinking and heightened mood extremes. This drives the feeling of infatuation.

Testosterone(h): increases sexual desire

Cortisol(h): allows our bodies to deal with the perceived stressful situation

Which study can be used to support the neurochemistry of love?

Fisher et al (2005)

Which parts of the brain are the dopamine-rich areas associated with a “reward system“?

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the caudate nucleus

Fisher et al (2005) APFC:

A: To investigate specific neural mechanisms associated with romantic love

P: 10 women and 7 men who were intensely in love for an average of 7.4 months participated in a semi-structured interview and a Likert-type “passionate love scale“ questionnaire. Then they were scanned in an fMRI machine.

F: There was increased activity of areas in the brain associated with dopamine neurons when they looked at pictures of their loved one. Data supported a correlation between attitude to their lover and brain activity.

C: According to Fisher, love is not an emotion but a motivation system that enables lovers to mate. The results support our knowledge of the role of dopamine in forming romantic bonds.

Fisher et al (2005) critical thinking:

Gives love a biological basis including an evolutionary explanation.

However, the small sample size and debateable validity of the Love Scale makes results a bit unreliable.

What research method was used by Fisher?

Quasi experiment

What is a cognitive explanation for the formation of relationships?

The idea that internal mental processes such as perception and decision-making play a role in the formation of relationships.

What are two cognitive explanations for the formation of relationships?

Halo effect and similarity attraction hypothesis

Which studies can be used for cognitive explanations for formation of relationships?

Dion, 1972 (the halo effect) and Markey & Markey, 2007 (similarity attraction hypothesis)

What is the halo effect?

The tendency to attribute a physically good-looking person with positive character attributes

What is similarity attraction hypothesis?

The tendency to desire a partner who is similar to yourself in terms of character attributes (nb. NOT physical attractiveness- this is matching hypothesis!)

Which study can be used for the halo effect?

Dion (1972)

Dion (1972) APFC:

A: To investigate the role of the halo effect in choosing a partner

P: 30x male and 30x female uni students from the US. They were told they were participating in a study about “accuracy of people perception“.

P: each participant was shown a picture of one conventionally attractive, one unattractive and one control person. They used a six-point scale to rate 27 behaviours and attributes including sociability, altruism and intelligence. They also responded to a survey about who was most likely to be happy in marriage and overall.

F: Attractive people were predicted to be more happy, more successful and have positive personality traits.

C: The halo effect had occurred. The positive trait of attractiveness was generalised to other attributes.

Dion (1972) critical thinking

-Attractiveness is subjective and hard to judge on first impressions, low temporal validity, small sample size

-Random assignment to same gender vs opposite gender conditions and similar results in both

-Supported by other research: Patry found that jurors were less likely to believe an attractive person was guilty, Batres found that good-looking people are assumed to be more intelligent and have positive personality traits

What research method did Dion use?

Experiment

Which study can be used for the similarity attraction hypothesis?

Markey and Markey (2007)

Markey and Markey (2007) APFC:

A: To investigate the role of similarity in choosing a partner

P: 103 female and 66 male undergrad volunteers of mean age 19

P: They completed a questionnaire rating their own attributes, values and personality. Then they had to do the same for a hypothetical romantic ideal. They also completed filler questions.

F: How the participants explained their ideal partner was similar to how they perceived themselves.

C: This supports the similarity-attraction model because people wanted a partner who had similar attitudes, values and beliefs to themselves.

What research method did Markey and Markey use?

Questionnaire

Markey and Markey (2007) critical thinking

\-Self selected sample, not generalizable outside of young American students, difficult to establish the nature of the relationship (cause and effect) between personality and romantic preference

\-The use of filler questions is good for concealing the nature of the study and reducing demand characteristics

Which theories can be used for sociocultural explanations for the formation of relationships?

Proximity theory and Mere exposure effect

Which studies can be used for sociocultural explanations for the formation of relationships?

Festinger et al (1950): proximity effect and Moreland and Beach (1992): mere exposure effect

What is proximity theory?

The theory that people have a greater tendency to form relationships with individuals that are close by.

Proximity hypothesis: Festinger et al (1950) APFC:

A: To investigate the role of proximity in relationship formation

P: A naturalistic, non-participant, overt observation of the students at one university, and regular interviews of students who lived in rooms on 17 of the blocks on campus. Participants were asked to say who their three closest friends were.  

F: Students that lived on the same floor were more likely to be close friends, students near stairwells were more likely to befriend people on other floors. Students that shared mealtimes were also more likely to be friends.

P: Proximity played a key factor in relationship formation

Proximity hypothesis: Festinger et al (1950) critical thinking:

\-Temporal validity is very low and cannot be generalised to online relationships

\-Nowadays physical proximity is less important as psychological proximity can be maintained through the internet

What research method did Festinger use?

Observation (overt, naturalistic, non-participant)

Moreland and Beach (1992) APFC:

A: To test the validity of the mere exposure effect

P: 63 male and 67 female psychology students were taking lectures in a crowded hall. Four women attended 0,5,10 or 15 sessions but did not interact with the students. At the end of the term students were shown slides of the four women and asked to rate them from 1-7 on measures including attractiveness, popularity, warmth and success.

F: Both male and female participants found a correlation between number of lectures the women attended and attractiveness, though they did not consciously find the women familiar.

C: The mere exposure effect had occurred.

Moreland and Beach (1992) critical thinking:

\-Naturalistic, high ecological validity

\-Quite a small sample size and poorly controlled: maybe the woman that attended the most lectures would have been found the most attractive regardless of mere exposure effect?

What research method was used by Moreland and Beach, 1992?

Field experiment

Which study can be used to support the importance of cultural differences in the formation of relationships?

Levine et al, 1995

Levine et al (1995) APFC:

A: to investigate cross-cultural differences in love as a basis for marriage

P: 497 males and 637 females from 11 countries did a questionnaire.

F: love was attributed greatest importance in individualist Western nations. Differences between West and East were strongest regarding establishment of a marriage compared to its maintenance and dissolution.

C: There are cultural differences in what is deemed important in the formation of romantic relationships, especially regarding romantic love.

What research method did Levine use?

Questionnaire

Who devised the similarity attraction model?

Burne (1971)

What study can be used as supporting research that Eastern and Western people have different priorities in romantic relationships?

Ye et al (2006)

What did Ye et al’s content analysis of Chinese and American online dating profiles (2006) find?

• More Chinese profiles talked about their financial status, physical appearance, health conditions, education and morality

• American profiles focused on personality and hobbies (both in terms of description of self and what they’d desire in a potential partner)