WORLD HISTORY FINAL MEGA SET

Link between the Industrial Revolution & the Age of New Imperialism

All of the advancements in technology during the Industrial Revolution gave countries the ability to expand (Maxim Guns, Steam Powered Warships, repeating rifles, riverboats, medicine like quinine). The drive for raw materials and a labor force to provide their factories with. Industrial Revolution gave the resources needed for the Age of Imperialism to ensue.

Examples of New Imperialist nations

• France
• Great Britain
• Belgium
• Germany
• Italy
• Portugal
• Spain
• Japan
• USA

Examples of the regions, countries, & continents that were put under imperial rule

• India
• Africa: only two countries remained independent by 1900, Liberia and Ethiopia
• China
• Korea?
• Latin America
• Hawaiian Islands
• the Philippines

Political Motivations for New Imperialism

• countries wanted more land than rival countries
• wanted to be a global power with the most territory
• wanted to spread their governing styles/teachings

Economic Motivations for New Imperialism

• need for natural resources: rubber, petroleum, manganese, palm oil
• bankers wanted more opportunities for investments
• expanding global market by increasing amount of potential customers to sell their manufactured goods to (industrialization)
• need for raw materials for factories

Military Motivations for New Imperialism

• need for bases all over the world (for merchant ships and naval ships)
• colonies to protect national security interests
• prestige for having many colonies/seizing islands or harbors
• ports for refueling (refueling stations)
• use colonial population as soldiers

Social Motivations for New Imperialism

• spread their religion (EX: Christianity was a spreading religion)
• spread their traditions and culture to become more popular
• spread their technology, education, medicine, and new advancements
• colonies allowed a place for a rapidly growing population
• bring the "blessings of civilization" to their colonies

Justifications for New Imperialism

They had to "civilize" the people there or spread their religion to them (like Christianity). Paternalism; the people in the colonies needed the imperialists help.

Reasons why newspapers & authors were relevant and important contributors to New Imperialism

They made it seem glorious and patriotic. They did not touch upon the struggles of the people living in the colonies, if they did they glossed over it.

Political changes that happened in locations that were put under imperial rule

• Direct Rule: used by the French, officials and soldiers ruled their colonies, wanted to bring French culture to the colonies, reflected the belief that the colonial people could not rule themselves
• Indirect Rule: used by the British, British governor and advisors made laws for each colony, local rulers loyal to the British government served as agents, British encouraged young children of local rulers to get an education in Britain, led to local rulers being stripped of power but still had some influence, communicated directly with colony = reduce resistance
• Protectorate Rule: local rulers remained but had to follow advice of European advisors, advice was on issues with trade (economics) and religion
• Sphere of Influence: an area where an outside power (another country) claimed exclusive privilege (in investments and trade), affected China and parts of Latin America, prevented conflict with other countries, cost less than colonies, no large military commitment
• European nations set up governments in conquered territories which reflected their traditions and values
• Europeans used their own legal systems against natives
• Europeans drew up borders around their territories, ignoring whether or not they split up cultures and ethnic groups or put people with no common heritage together

Economic changes that happened in locations that were put under imperial rule

• colonies profited the European powers through their local mines and farms
• cash crops grown in colonies (rubber, cotton, palm oil, peanuts) were sold internationally
• colonies provided raw materials to industrial factories
• imports overpowered indigenous industries and homemade products
• colonies became dependent on profits from industrial market
• local people were taxes to keep the colonial government running
• the only money available to colonial people came from selling labor
• colonies gave RAW MATERIALS and CASH CROPS, while the European powers gave manufactured goods

Military changes that happened in locations that were put under imperial rule

• Maxim Guns: some of the first machine guns
• newly invented Steam Powered Warships were used in military
• repeating rifle: another early form of the machine gun
• telegraph used for army communication
• riverboats carried soldiers and supplies
• Medicine (quinine and others) assisted European soldiers by protecting them from deadly diseases like Malaria
• medicine allowed soldiers to go to inner Africa and others where before they would've died of disease
• imperialists set rival groups against each other → they don't band together and kick out invaders (divide and conquer)
• making military bases on colonies so that the empire could have a bigger reach
• made people in the colonies fight in the military for the imperialist

Social changes that happened in locations that were put under imperial rule

• missionaries set up schools in the colonies for children to learn their religion and get an education
• people took on the ideas of Christianity from missionaries and adopted them instead of traditional teachings
• people needed cash because of economic growth
• men took on jobs in distant mines and plantations, making them more absent from their families
• made families move into colonial cities
• money and economics contributed to the breakdown of traditional culture in the colonies
• close-knit villages became lass common
• colonies became more popular
• people living under colonial rule were not happy

Case Study: Africa

• 1400s to 1700s: Europeans stayed along the coast of Africa, did not venture inside
• late 1800s: Europeans traveled into Africa easily because of medical advancement and river steamships
• Europeans looking for an adventure came, but so did missionaries
• paternalism shaped some missionaries' interactions with Africans: encouraged children to reject their traditional culture
• David Livingstone: doctor and missionary, spent 30 years traveling across Africa, wrote about Africans with sympathy like they were humans too, tried to end enslavement thought opening interior Africa to Christianity and trade would fix it, "discovered" the Victoria Falls, Henry Stanley tried to find this man
• 1875: Europeans controlled less than 10% of Africa
• 1900: 90% of Africa divided into European colonies
• 1879: Henry Stanley claimed the Congo River Valley (full of rubber trees, 80 times bigger than Belgium itself!) for King Leopold II who started a secret regime of slave labor, mutilations, and murders → 8 to 10 million people killed
• 1884 to 1885: European representatives (NO African rulers or representatives) met in Berlin to declare "first come, first serve"
• the Scramble for Africa lasted for 25 years
• conquered Africa: superior industrialized weapons but African resisted fiercely → many African casualties, tricked Africans into making alliance → dominate the alliance, accepted Africans invitation to protect them → dominate them
• only Liberia and Ethiopia remained independent: Liberia protected by USA, and Ethiopia's emperor Menelik II gained modern weapons, fought off Italy, and created his own African empire
• Europeans kept African rulers on throne to prevent revolt as people were familiar with rulers, morale went up, rulers knew history and language better → a buffer

Case Study: Africa, Part 2

• European taxed Africans in European currency (African rulers taxed with goods and labor) → Africans had to work for Europeans growing cash crops not food
• used African taxes to improve health care, farming methods, and European-style education → ONLY for Europeans usually
• Africans treated like second-class citizens, not given the same rights and opportunities because of race, age, social class
• Europeans: encouraged ethnic group rivalries, limited education, denied proper training for different jobs to Africans, relied on non-Africans to do special skilled jobs → to maintain successful control over African empires
• poverty, customs, and climate limited Europeans' export sales to Africans
• farming techniques successful in Europe (seed drill) not successful in Africa because of different climate
• cash crop plantations for peanut, palm oil, cocoa, rubber + harvested and exported = money for Europeans! but hurt Africans because they couldn't use land to grow food
• mines to develop Africa's mineral resources = Europeans made money! but Africans did the dangerous and difficult labor for little pay

Case Study: India

• British East India Company (BEIC): British citizens that pooled their money together to form a joint-stock company that purchased government contracts, one of the most successful of the 1600s, 1700s, and 1800s, established trade posts in Bombay, Madras (Chennai), and Calcutta because they were near water
• 1700s: Mughal Empire declining
• Par. gave BEIC right to own army, pass laws, and its own currency → wanted the natural materials (cash crops) from the BEIC and to TAX THE PROFITS
• BEIC used diplomacy, superior weapons, intrigue to guarantee the break up of Mughal Empire
• BEIC wanted to make a lot of money in India → improved roads, preserved peace, reduced banditry
• 1600s, 1700s, 1800s: India pop grew = more customers to buy BEIC goods
• RAW COTTON was vital to British factories → kept BEIC in India
• Indian ruling dynasty practiced Islam but majority of pop. practiced Hinduism → BEIC played the two groups against each other
• Akbar the Great (born Muslim) created his own religion, gave Hindus government jobs, ended Hindu's extra tax, encouraged religious toleration
• BEIC passed a law banning sati (upper caste widow would throw herself in husband's funeral pyre to die too) → widows could remarry, overall conditions improved
• sepoys: Indian men who served in the BEIC's private army as it gained more land and wealth in India
• soldiers required to serve anywhere needed + widows encouraged to remarry by law if husband died serving BEIC = increased resentment of soldiers and families
• 1857: BEIC issued new rifle that used cow or pig fat to grease the cartridge which soldiers had to bite off → cows sacred to Hindus, pigs sacred to Muslims

Case Study: India, Part 2

• Uprising of 1857: Sepoys revolted to stop the BEIC's cultural disrespect, response to the cartridges, killed British men, women, and children along their way to Dehli
• British crown sent troops to crush Uprising of 1857, they burned villages and killed thousands of unarmed Indians → "We will not tolerate any dissent"
• 1858: India placed under direct rule of the British Parliament → the British Raj created
• to secure the British Raj, Britain sent more troops to India and taxed the Indians for it
• Viceroy: British man who lived in India as #1 official and governed in the name of the Queen
• British officials held the top jobs in government and army under the British Raj
• Minority Upper Class: well-educated Indian men who served in other government and military jobs, many attended British schools and experienced western-style training
• Indian princes benefited under British Raj by exporting cash crops (Britain never had direct political control over entire India)
• Positives of British Imperialism: peace and order in countryside, roads and railroads helped Indians move around, telegraph and postal system improved communication, upperclassmen could send sons to British schools, Indian landowners and princes who still had territory made lots of money exporting cash crops, education for all
• Negatives of British Imperialism: deforestation + other environmental destruction because of mass production of cash crops, famine because of mass production of cash crops, high taxes to pay for modernization, less pay for equal jobs (20 times less), no political voice (no voting)

Case Study: India, Part 3

• Ram Mohan Roy: use Western ideas to revitalize Indian culture, wanted to make Hindu castes less rigid, end child marriage and sati, stop purdah (Islamic tradition of isolating women in separate quarters), set up educational societies, founder of Indian Nationalism
• Indian National Congress Party (est. 1885): most members were Hindu, first wanted to seek reforms for India, overtime wanted self rule/independence, encouraged boycotting British goods to hurt Britain financially, believed peaceful protest would ultimately help India gain self rule
• Muslim League (est. 1906): Muslim elites got nervous about not being represented by the majority Hindu INC, overall purpose was to protect the rights and interests of Muslims in India, called for self rule of India at first, by 1930s they wanted a separate Muslim country (Pakistan, created after the British Raj ended)

Case Study: China

• under Ch'ing Dynasty, China chose to focus inwardly → not much trading = less money, did not undergo the Industrial Revolution → vulnerable, less technologically advanced (inferior weapons)
• 1800: 300 million adults + 100 million teens = a lot of customers
• China home to silk and porcelain (china) → Europeans wanted to buy it for centuries!
• Ch'ing Dynasty refused to accept unregulated trade so BEIC smuggled opium from India into China and got people addicted (1 out of 3 people were addicted)
• Why people took opium: rich young people thought it was new and exciting, it was a relief for poor people, caused people to fall asleep → dens created where people stayed and took opium for days neglecting their responsibilities, similar to heroin and fentanyl
• Ch'ing Dynasty appealed to Queen Victoria asking her to stop the BEIC (do the right thing…) → Queen Victoria ignored them, she did nothing (she would lose money, less stuff to tax)
• First Opium War (1839): fought at Sea, China VS Britain, winner: Britain because they had better weapons (cannons) and Queen Victory sent the British Navy to defend British citizens in the BEIC
• Lin Zexu: declared opium trade illegal, arrested dealers, confiscated and destroyed it by dumping it in rivers, arrested addicts
• Treaty of Nanking (1842): officially ended first opium war, beginning of 100 years of humiliation, China had to pay for ALL expenses of the war (indemnity) ~21 million in 1842, Britain gained 4 more ports in China (Britain controlled 5 ports in China), Britain gained extraterritorial rights (did not have to obey Chinese law) over their ports, increased opium sales in China, carved China into spheres of influence → foreigner's economic interest came before China's people

Case Study: China, Part 2

• Taiping Rebellion (1853): a civil war, Chinese people furious at government (Ch'ing Dynasty) because they signed unequal treaties, millions were starving, they lost the opium war, they were losing control of China, they were too weak, people dying from opium addiction, starvation, and floods; GOAL: overthrow the Ch'ing Dynasty and place a new strong government, FAILED because Britain and Chinese government's armies teamed up to defeat the rebels in a 10 year war where 20 million died
• Taiping Rebellion caused: Ch'ing Dynasty to upgrade their navy + army, improve transportation and communication, expand educational system to include technical subjects and foreign languages → did NOT make the Chinese people happy because they wanted little to no Western influence
• Second Opium War (1857-1860): fought at land AND sea, Great Britain and France VS China, winners: Great Britain and France because industrialization (better weapons) and teamed up against China, made Russia, Japan, and Germany jealous → took land from China
• US nervous after Second Opium War because China was carved up into colonies and American traders were shut out → US issued the Open Door Policy (allow the US to continue trading with China), but China was left at the mercy of foreigners, any country that wanted to trade with China could, Christian missionaries came preaching and building churches
• Boxer Rebellion (1900): China furious at foreigners because they dominated most cities and humiliated them, "Death to the Foreign Devils!", FAILED because Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Russia, Japan, and US troops teamed up to defeat them (wanted to protect their economic interests in China)
• Boxer Rebellion caused: China wanted to change future with nationalism (China for China), republicanism (vote), and land reform (more peasant land)

Case Study: Japan

• Tokugawa Shogunate had 250 years of isolation → lacked modern weapons and tech, factories, profits from trade
• Japan only traded with China and the Netherlands at Nagasaki (big profits gained → US jealous) → USA commissioned Commodore Matthew Perry to lead naval mission to Japan to open Japan to foreign trade
• Perry's "Black Ships" sent message that US was stronger and could easily crush the Japanese → Japan and US signed the Treaty of Kanagawa
• Treaty of Kanagawa: US got free trade with Japan, US granted extraterritorial rights in Japan
• seeing US' modern tech, Japan and their government were alarmed → feared they would be gobbled up unless modernized, so Tokugawa Shogunate was overthrown
• 15 yr old Emperor Mutsuhito took thrown, named his new government "Meiji" ("enlightened rule") → 50 yr old reformers could boss the kid around easily
• Meiji government's key goal: modernization
• Meiji government wrote new constitution based on Germany's, ended feudalism (samurai culture), and empowered a small group of reform-minded men who wanted to make Japan a powerhouse
• picked Tomomi Iwakura to protect Japan from being taken over by foreign nations → he traveled to US and Britain to study their ways of life and chose the best they had to offer (brought back inspiration)
• Tomomi Iwakura's national program: built national railroad line (7,000 mi), coal and iron production soared, government became directly involved in running factories
• borrowed little money from European and American bankers because then the nation would demand political and economic interference → made money through selling silk instead
• owed NO foreign nation any money and was free from debt despite its widespread industrialization reforms

Case Study: Japan, Part 2

• experienced militarization (government and civilians agreed that military was #1 priority) → refocus its energy on the Japanese armed services!
• built a new navy on Britain's model + built a new army on Germany's model → by 1899, not a single western nation maintained extraterritorial rights in Japan (including US)
• 1894: tested new military strength by going to war against China → won the war and gained control of Korea, already began to eye Manchuria because of its large deposits of coal and iron (to use for ships, army, and factories)
• Russia was also industrializing and wanted Manchuria → Russia felt it had no choice but to wage war against Japan, confident they would win and force Japan to give up its imperial ambitions
• Russo-Japanese War (1904), an unexpected Japanese victory! (Battle of Tsushima where 38/40 Russian ships SUNK!) → shocked, humiliated, and mortified Russian surrendered to Japan. Tsar Nicholas II desperately sought another chance to prove his military leadership ability to his own people and the world (came 10 years later, WWI)
• Japan celebrated recent military victories, but wanted MORE, not satisfied with its role in global community nor empire size → Japan started building a big, powerful empire in Pacific

Case Study: Western Hemisphere

• US and Europe wanted to build empires here: many resources for factories (tin from Bolivia, copper from Chile), market for LA food products, more customers
• Latin America built railroads, docks, processing plants, refrigerated railroad cars and ships to BOOST rates of production → LA had to borrow money from US and Europe
• US feared Europe would take over LA and security of US and American businesses would be in danger
• 1895: Cubans began fighting for independence, Americans reminded of their own fight for independence, wanted to protect their sugar, and Cuba guarded the Gulf of Mexico
• Spanish-American War starts: February 1898 US battleship USS Maine exploded mysteriously (200 sailors dies) → US newspapers blamed Spain with no evidence (wanted to make money) making the American public want to go to war against Spain, US government declared war on Spain in April 1898
• Spanish-American War results: lasted 5 months, America won and gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, US allowed to intervene with Cuban affairs (tried to kill Fidel Castro many times) and right to build naval bases in Cuba (Guantanamo Bay)
• motives of the Panama Canal: expanding trade and the military could move faster
• original plan for Panama Canal: US would but it from Colombia for $10 million and a yearly payment but Colombian government thought it was too low → Roosevelt encouraged revolution in Panama by offering weapons and military back up with the US Navy anchored in the harbor
• Panama Canal changes: Panama was born, canal was built (land was cut through), US benefited because trade went up and their navy could travel faster
• Monroe Doctrine (1823): Americas were closed to further European colonization
• Roosevelt Corollary (1904): US could act as international police officer in Americas → justified US intervention in LA

Case Study: Western Hemisphere, Part 2

• US sent troops into LA when American investments were in danger or American lives (they toppled governments and killed leaders)
• Nicaragua, Haiti, Dominican Republic, and Cuba all experienced US military intervention between 1904 and 1930
• Hawaiian islands: rich in resources, good place for coaling station, good place for naval bases, could be a refueling station, before 1898 it was independent
• 1880s: Americans owned lucrative sugar and pineapple (dole) plantations in Hawaiian islands → Americans wanted Hawaii to become a state so they faced no more tariffs
• Queen Lilioukalani was the ruler of independent Hawaiian islands and refused to give up her country's freedom → overthrown (US started a revolution)
• 1898: Hawaii became part of the US

The Philippine-American War

• Spain had imperial control over Cuba and the Philippines in 1895 who both wanted independence
• Filipino freedom fighters declared war against Spain in 1896
• most famous Filipino rebel leader: Emilio Aguinaldo
• 1896 to 1898 Filipino rebels believed US was a source of support: US was actively helping Cuba fight for independence, Dewey (very powerful man) met with Aguinaldo privately aboard a US Naval warship and brought him back to the Philippines
• July 1898: Aguinaldo declared the Philippines as an independent republic nation, asked US for support but US ignored them
• December 1898: US and Spain signed a treaty and Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines sold to US → Filipinos now fighting against US so Aguinaldo made an official declaration of war against US
• brutal and prolonged: guerilla warfare used (sneak attacks, hit and runs), teenagers made up Filipino army, 63,000 US soldiers did not succeed in defeating Filipino resistance in 3 years, US attacked Filipino troops and civilians, 500,000 Filipinos died, three years of official war but a decade more of fighting
• FAVORED this: good fueling station for US ships, help expand into China, required to educate islands, required to "Christianize" islands, believed islanders could not govern or defend themselves against European powers, primitive and savage people (Filipinos) had to be protected
• OPPOSED this: empires were anti-democratic, overseas empires would only add to the overwhelming power of big businesses (rich people richer), violation of a nation's heritage, plain racist
• first decade of 1900s: Philippines became part of US' military empire (navy bases) by one vote in the Senate

Technological Inventions

• blast furnace (HB)
• light bulb (TAE)
• phonograph (TAE)
• telephone (AGB)
• wireless telegraph (GM)
• Model T, cars (HF)
• airplane (W&OW)

Henry Bessemer

• developed a blast furnace to make strong, cheap steel
• steel helped new railroads tracks last longer
• steel was the key component in the development of the new architectural design: SKYSCRAPER → more people moved into cities

Thomas Alva Edison

• applied for over 1000 patents
• established the world's first laboratory for continuous research & development in Menlo Park, NJ, USA
• nickname: "Wizard of Menlo Park"
• invented world's first light bulb & phonograph (record player)
• concept of having laboratory for constant research & development = fundamental to today's world
• hours of play and work no longer dictated by candles or sun → light bulb opened whole new world for leisure and work

Alexander Graham Bell

• developed telephone
• a world without your phone? thank this guy
• revolutionized world of communication

Guglielmo Marconi

• developed the wireless telegraph
• people were able to communicate across the Atlantic Ocean
• boats able to communicate with each other while completing missions
• made it much easier to communicate
• militaries benefitted from having communication links between naval vessels

Henry Ford

• goal: to create a car that all social classes could afford
• used new methods to make cars fast in a factory: mass production, assembly line, interchangeable parts
• his Detroit factory was able to make 2000 cars in 1 hour!
• Model T was only $500
• 1914: 600,000+ cars in entire world, 50% were owned by Americans
• BEFORE: cars were hand-assembled, cars max speed was 10-15 mph, cars were expensive and almost impossible to repair
• AFTER: middle & working class could afford cars & travel to work & go places for fun!, all types of factories adapted his methods (mass production, interchangeable parts, assembly line) to boost efficiency

Wilbur & Orville Wright

• developed the first airplane to sustain flight in air
• launched the slow development of the airplane industry
• 1914: less than 1000 planes in the entire world
• innovations laid the foundation for today's airplanes (used in military, trade, travel purposes)

Joseph Lister

• medical doctor who insisted his hospital rooms be spotless
• used carbolic acid to clean all bacteria on his surgical tools
• instructed staff to wash their hands between serving patients
• 85% of his patients survived surgery & post-operational recuperation
• BEFORE: doctors didn't bother to clean tools, wash hands, or change linens between patients, 50% of patients died from infections
• AFTER: antiseptic sterilization is now standard procedure

Louis Pasteur

• developed the process to kill bacteria in liquids by heating them through
• developed rabies vaccine
• still use his innovations to make water, fluids, and foods healthier for popular consumption

Scientific Inventions & Theories

• sanitizing hospital/surgical rooms & used carbolic acid to clean surgical tools (JL)
• process to kill bacteria in liquids & rabies vaccine (LP)
• theory of evolution (CD)
• theory that one's trait are inherited genetically, thanks to dominant and recessive genes (GM)
• theory that all matter is composed of atoms (JD)
• Periodic Table to classify and organize elements (DM)
• discovered two new radioactive elements (M&PC)
• theory on Business Success (HS)
• theory on Personal Success (HS)

Charles Darwin

• wrote The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection: there are more individuals born than can survive (constant struggle for survival), no individuals are exactly alike due to variation, individuals whose variations are best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive & reproduce (natural selection)
• developed theory of evolution
• his book, Descent of Man, was highly controversial because it asserted that humans evolved from another species too
• BEFORE: most Americans believed in the special creation theory
• AFTER: initial broad conflict between faith & science, increasing acceptance over time of his scientific developments, his theories & implications had a sweeping impact on the field of science

Gregor Mendel

• nickname: "Father of Genetics"
• developed the theory that ones traits are inherited genetically, thanks to dominant & recessive genes
• doctors study genetics for MANY reasons today (reasons for illness, children birth defects)

John Dalton

• developed the theory that all matter is composed of atoms
• studied elements and compounds, too
• ideas still used in all levels of scientific study

Dimitri Mendeleev

• developed the Periodic Table to classify and organize elements
• still used today to assist in scientific research and study

Marie & Pierre Curie

• discovered two new elements, both radioactive
• identified the new form of dangerous energy as "radioactive"
• won the Nobel Prize for Physics
• research proved links between chemistry and physics
• theories still used in scientific research today

evolution

scientific theory that new species develop over time due to natural selection

special creation theory

• belief that every kind of plant and animal in the universe had been created by God at the beginning of the world and had remained the same since
• theory held that God hand-crafted man with care and in His own image, therefore man was God's most important living organism

Herbert Spencer

• incorrectly applied Darwin's ideas about plants and animals to economics and politics
• an English sociologist
• developed Social Darwinism
• argued that free economic competition was natural selection in action
• Theory on Business Success: the best companies make a profit, while inefficient ones go bankrupt
• Variations of his Theory on Business Success: repeat customers, quality, advertisements, employee loyalty, price
• Real Life Exceptions to his Theory on Business Success: natural disasters (hurricanes), trends, embezzling, pandemic, economy crashing
• Theory on Personal Success (people): if you're fit for survival then you'll have wealth and success, if you're unfit for survival then you'll be poor, strong and smart MEN are fittest in the world, weaker MEN are unfit
• Variations of his Theory on Personal Success: popularity, money, influence, gender, race, political power, family background, wealth
• Exceptions of his Theory on Personal Success: Barack Obama, Martin Luther King Jr., Queen Elizabeth I

Theory on Business Success

• developed by Herbert Spencer
• the best companies make a profit, while the inefficient ones go bankrupt
• "variations": repeat customers, quality, advertisements, employee loyalty, price
• exceptions in real life: natural disasters, trends, embezzling, pandemic, economic crash

Theory on Personal Success

• developed by Herbert Spencer
• if you're fit for survival then you'll have wealth and success, but if you're unfit then you'll be poor
• strong and smart MEN are the fittest in the world, weaker MEN are unfit
• "variation": popularity, money, influence, wealth, gender, race, political power, family background
• exceptions in real life: Barack Obama, Martin Luther King Jr., Elizabeth I

Friedrich Nietzsche

• some humans could evolve into übermenschen (supermen) using only willpower and courage
• did not like parliamentary government
• nations should prove superiority through power (especially military power)
• übermenschen have a right to rule because they are above undermenschen
• dictators and imperialists used his ideas to support their own
• his ideas were used to justify oppressive government
• ideas justified: racism, paternalism, militarism, and fascism

The Movement for Women's Rights

• Cult of Domesticity placed rigid norms on women
• progressive women and men joined together to end the rigid norms imposed by the Cult of Domesticity on women in the early 1900s
• Women's political limitations: no suffrage, no political (government) jobs!
• Women's economic limitations: could not own their own property, had lower wages, could not own their paychecks
• Women's legal limitations: could not sue, could not make contracts, could not be a guardian of her children if husband died
• International Council for Women popped up in the mid-1800s to seek more women's rights: funded international councils for women, organized parades, petition drives, speeches, conventions
• Women's Social & Political Union led by Emmeline Pankhurst (a British group): members wanted to be jailed, cut telegraph wires, publicly harassed (insulted) government speakers, chained themselves to railings of public buildings, smashed windows, Pankhurst went on a hunger strike in jail and had to be force fed to survive, Emily Davison (a member) threw herself in front of the King's horse and was killed → a martyr
• WSPU tactics backfired on the movement = made women look crazy, fed into the notion that women were overemotional and impulsive
• WAS NOT SUCCESSFUL by the start of WWI (1914) because only New Zealand, Australia, Finland, and Norway gave women the right to vote pre-WWI

Cult of Domesticity

• for middle and upper class women only
• idea that a women's sphere of expertise rested in the home, raising her children, and taking care of her husband
• women's skills and opinions not to be trusted or acknowledged
• women expected to be pure, pious (really religious), submissive (submit, take others orders) & domestic
• women reflected well on husband by: having as many children as possible, keeping herself as well-groomed as possible, presenting herself with grace and poise in public
• women NOT supposed to: take attention away from husband, seek a job beyond the home other than teaching, nursing, or charity work, speak out of turn, express her opinion without being asked or to show an interest in politics or current events
• result: A woman should strive to be SEEN but not HEARD

the International Council for Women

• formed in the mid-1800s after reformers like Lucretia Mott and Susan B. Anthony began seeking more women's rights
• funded international councils for women
• organized parades
• organized conventions
• organized speeches
• organized petition drives

Women's Social & Political Union

• led by Emmeline Pankhurst
• a British group
• members wanted to be jailed
• cut telegraph wires
• publicly harassed (insulted) government speakers
• chained themselves to railings outside public buildings
• smashed windows
• Emmeline Pankhurst went on hunger strikes in jail and had to be force fed to survive
• Emily Davison (a young member) threw herself in front of the King's horse and was killed → martyr

Pre-1914 Political Developments and Social Patterns: Germany

• Kaiser: "emperor"; made final decisions on laws, policies, how to spend taxes; had ZERO limits; inherited the job from his father
• Chancellor: "prime minister"; could draft legislation, make policy proposals, suggest ways to spend taxes; Kaiser had final say over his choices; hand-selected by Kaiser
• Bundesrat: upper House of German Parliament (represented interests of wealthy noble citzens); could draft legislation, make policy proposals, suggest ways to spend taxes; Kaiser and Chancellor had final say over choices; appointed by 25 states of Germany, chosen by nobles
• Reichstag: lower House of German Parliament (represented interests of non-noble citizens); could draft legislation, make policy proposals, suggest way to spend taxes; Kaiser and Chancellor had final say over choices; elected by universal manhood suffrage
• their democracy was a HOLLOW SHAM, Kaiser held unlimited power!
• Otto von Bismarck was Germany's Chancellor until 1890
• Bismarck's Social Insurance Program: provide workers with financial aid from government if accident, provide workers with financial aid from government if sick, provide old-age pensions to every German worker
• Bismarck's Social Insurance Program was the first of its kind, helped the poorer people, prevented revolt because the commonfolk were happy, and influenced US
• Bismarck hoped to reduce the popularity of socialists (who he considered were most dangerous to Germany's future, thought they would revolt!) by giving government money to workers
• 1888: Kaiser Wilhelm II (headstrong and quarrelsome) took the throne
• 1890: Wilhelm II forced Bismarck to quit → wanted no one standing in way of his new ideas for Germany's future

Pre-1914 Political Developments and Social Patterns: Britain

• 1909: David Lloyd George was Britain's Financial Minister
• "People's Budget": an income tax that would hit the wealthy the hardest
• Programs provided by the "People's Budget": old-age pensions to every British workers, financial aid from government if accident, financial aid from government if ill, financial aid from government during stretches of unemployment
• House of Commons (represented poor people) approved of the "People's Budget" → their people would benefit greatly
• House of Lords (mostly wealthy landowners) rejected the "People's Budget" → their people would lose money
• King George V threatened to appoint loyal friends to House of Lords, sure they would vote to approve "People's Budget" and remain loyal in later years
• Long-term Impact of "People's Budget": Lords could only delay a bill for 2 years if they didn't like it → after stalled for 2 years, the bill would ultimately become a law whether or not the Lords approved

"La Belle Époque" ("The Beautiful Era")…was it really?

• upper class made up 1-2% of society
• upper class were landowners and royalty
• upper class worried about fashion/trends/social pressure and invasion/war
• upper class spent their leisure time at art societies, mountain spas, hunting on country estates
• middle class made 25-35% of society
• middle class were merchants, shopkeepers, doctors, lawyers, teachers, government employees, and factory supervisors
• middle class worried about bills and worker strikes
• middle class spent their leisure time on short summer vacations
• lower class made up the rest of society
• lower class were servants and factory workers
• lower class worried about money and sicknesses (tuberculosis)
• lower class spent their leisure time doing nothing! They had NO FREE TIME! If they were lucky they'd get a picnic in a park
• this French phrase did NOT accurately reflect the social history of this time period (eve of WWI) because only the wealthy got the benefits, people were also on edge because of public assassinations by anarchists

Anarchists

• radical revolutionaries who thought ALL governments were evil
• main goal: Since all governments were evil, all governments should be overthrown.
• assassinated the Tsar of Russia (1881), French President (1894), King of Italy (1900), and US President (1901)
• placed people in "La Belle Époque" on edge because of their public assassinations

Pre-1914 Political Developments and Social Patterns: the Ottoman Empire

• government weak
• military outdated
• around the world, people referred to it as the "Sick Man of Europe" (it was weak, it'll die out, fall apart)
• ruler targeted ethnic minority groups to try and force compliance → massacring over 1 million innocent people
• Bulgarians, Armenians, and Christians were targeted in the 1870s & beginning in 1895 here
• MANY nationalist groups inside the empire's boundaries pushed for and demanded their own nations

Pre-1914 Political Developments and Social Patterns: Austria-Hungary

• government weak
• military outdated
• MANY nationalist groups inside pushed for and demanded their own nations

Pre-1914 Political Developments and Social Patterns: Russia

• mob attacks against Jewish people and Jewish people's businesses and property became more frequent
• government knew about the attacks but did not intervene or stop them
• violent acts, known as pogroms, resulted in widespread destruction and deaths

Background Causes of WWI

• Bismarck did not want war to wreck Germany, thought France was biggest threat → isolate France by forming Dual Alliance (1879) with Austria-Hungary and Italy; treaty with Russia in 1887
• Wilhelm II allowed friendship treaty between Germany and Russia to lapse → France and Russia made an alliance (promised to come to each other's aid if third country attacks them → dangerous for Germany because it would have to fight on 2 fronts)
• Wilhelm II didn't like Britain, envied their empire and their large navy → Wilhelm II built his own empire and started a shipbuilding program to make a navy
• Germany's aggression prompted Britain to build naval program (made the Dreadnought, biggest boat in world at that time, all guns) and seek allies → form Triple Entente with France & Russia (promised to not fight each other)
• 1907: Triple Alliance VS Triple Entente → neutral countries felt pressured to pick sides
• Balkans = Powder Keg of Europe
• Albania, Greece, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Romania all broke away from Ottoman Empire in early 1900s
• Serbia wanted to absorb all Slavs from A-H and OE into one nation (Pan-Slavism) → Russia delighted (they were Slavs) and thought they were strongest Slavic nation, vowed to be "Protector of all Slavs" and supported Serbia
• almost war in 1908: A-H annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina but Serbia wanted them too → Russia offered Serbia full support then Germany stood behind A-H and Russia backed down due to lack military prep
• Pre 1914: every Great Power kept standing army (except Britain had a navy) because politicians saw war BEST way to solve problems
• Military generals longed for war so could test new weapons and strategies → thought war was gonna be 6 months tops!
• Civilians thought war was exciting and patriotic, dying in it was the most glorious way to die, turn boys into men

Timeline: From Assassination to Total War

• June 28, 1914: Black Hand (Pan-Slavic nationalist group) wanted to assassinate Franz Ferdinand (A-H's heir) in Sarajevo, Bosnia → Gavrilo Princip shot F.F.
• A-H checked with Germany to turn against Serbia and Ger. gave them a "blank check" of support (unlimited support)
• A-H issues Serbia harsh ultimatum telling them to 1. stop all anti-Austrian activity (vague) 2. allow Austrian officials to investigate murder and prosecute (fair?) 3. Serbia had 48 hr to respond → Serbia accepted the terms they wanted to avoid war, A-H wanted war
• July 28, 1914: A-H declares war on Serbia → Russia mobilizes troops, weapons, supplies backing up Serbia
• Wilhelm II sees Russia's actions as threatening war so he moves soldiers to Ger. border as "precaution"
• Aug. 1, 1914: Ger. preemptively declares war on Russia → France, being part of Triple Entente and allied with Russia, makes Russia look to them for military support
• Aug. 3, 1914: Ger. declares war on France
• Schlieffen's Plan (to avoid a two front war for Ger.): attack France with 100% military might before Russia mobilizes then fight Russia with 100% might (after France defeated)
• Aug. 4, 1914: Ger. marches into Belgium (neutral nation) that warned Germans to stay out → August 5, 1914: GB declares war on Ger. claiming outrage for violation of neutral nation
• mid Aug.: Central Powers (Ger., A-H) VS Allied Powers (GB, FR, Russia, and Italy switched sides)
• Early Sept. 1914: Russia mobilized quicker and troops reached Eastern Front → Ger. high command sends thousands to Eastern Front, reducing odds of Schlieffen plan succeeding
• Sept. 6, 1914: FR and GB try to protect Paris at Battle of Marne → if Paris captured, FR would surrender; desperately British troops filled up transport trucks and overflow took taxis to battlefield

Timeline: From Assassination to Total War, Part 2

• Sept. 12, 1914: German generals gave command to retreat, falling back 40 mi north of Marne → Paris is saved! France does not surrender!
• the Schlieffen Plan FAILED → quick victory in West nor East possible, Germany faced a long, bloody, destructive war on 2 fronts…

New Technology in WWI

• Automatic Machine Gun: GB first used it, ADV: fast fire, 600 rounds per min; good range, up to 4,500 yards (over a mile); consistent fire and easy to reload, 1 is as deadly as 40 men with manual-loaded rifles, DIS: not portable, heavy, stayed on tripod mount; very expensive, about $10,000 today; could overheat causing jamming, required 2-3 people to use it, led to use of trenches
• Tanks: GB first used it, ADV: cross over trenches easily, helped infantry, transported weapons, hard to destroy, crushed barbed wire protecting trenches, DIS: very slow (3-8 mph), really expensive, inside very hot and cramped, big and loud, got stuck in howtzer holes in "No Mans Land"
• Military Airplane: ADV: observe enemies movements from air (spying), drop small hand-held bombs (not primary purpose), seeing it spooked/threatened enemies, aided in strategic planning, spying/recon main purpose, DIS: limited range, unreliable engines, communication difficulties, weather depended, primitive basic inaccurate weapons, pilots not trained properly led to high mortality rate, slow
• Poison Gas: GR first used it, ADV: low cost, long range, surprise factor, disrupts enemy, psychological/physical impacts: blindness, burns, internal bleeding, cancer, respiratory issues, maimed and injured not kill, DIS: weather dependent, could backfire by wind blowing it back to you, no guarantee of killing, have to wear a mask when using it, lots of chlorine gas exposure damages eyes, scared soldiers using it too, ethical concerns as civilians could be hurt (banned before)
• Submarine "U-Boat": GR first used it, ADV: torpedo enemy boats (taking out weapons, supplies, resources for war), could not be detected → stealth advantage, DIS: unethical weapon → hurt GR global reputation, GR said they had right to attack any ships, including neutral ones

Trench Life in WWI

• boring (played card games, who could kill most rats, cleaned tools to pass time)
• stressful
• painful
• smelly (ammo discharge, rotting bodies, latrines, earth, men themselves)
• dirty, unclean, unsanitary
• scary ("When is it my turn?")
• corpses everywhere
• loud
• cold, canned, tinned food
• likely to get disease especially from the rats everywhere that ate rotting bodies
• soldier came back with Shell Shock: like PTSD, got it from living in trenches, close encounter with death, seeing friends die, gunshots, rotting corpses, gore, blood, gun powder, poison gas
• Trench Fever: fever (comes and goes, 4-6 days), headaches, leg and shin pain, occasionally rash; caused by bacteria Bartonella Quintana, transmitted to humans through bites and feces of an infected human body lice, wet environment; could be cured
• Trench Foot: pain in the toes and heels, numbness or tingling, swelling, redness or blueness of skin, blisters, ulcers, and gangrene (tissue death); caused by feet kept wet and cold for prolonged periods, prolonged exposure to cold (above freezing) and damp conditions; could be cured
• Trench Mouth: severe pain, inflammation, ulcers on gums, bleeding gums, bad breath, fever, and general discomfort; caused by poor oral hygiene, overgrowth of mouth bacteria, stress, smoking, nutritional deficiencies, salty food; could be cured
• soldiers who signed up to fight in WWI thought the war would be a short, fun, exciting adventure but in reality, fighting along the Western Front was torturous, long, loud, dangerous, painful, traumatizing, and scary. Once you got there and finally understood with war was like, you knew you would not get out alive.

WWI was a GLOBAL War

• Allied Powers used British Indians, French West Africans, Canadians, New Zealanders, Australians to fight in their side
• Central Power used Ger. colonies in Africa and Asia, South Africans, Mexicans to fight on their side
• some colonial people volunteered to fight for the imperialists in WWI → expecting citizenship, independence, or respect in return (got NONE)
• other than soldiers, indigenous populations worked as laborer and suppliers during WWI
• lot more troops/soldiers
• made it a global war (beyond Europe)
• made it last longer (more people fighting)
• once the war was over, the indigenous people did NOT gain independence/citizenship → grounds for distaste and revolt
• colonial people were not freed, empires remained
• colonial people's nationalism soared because they did not get their freedom

WWI was a TOTAL war

• channeling of a nation's entire resources into the war effort
• government played a stronger role in people's economic and cultural lives
• government raised taxes
• government borrowed huge amounts of money
• government rationed food, boots, gasoline, and more
• citizen's daily cost of living went up
• workers could not strike
• citizens had limited items to buy
• government set prices and forbade strikes
• Nationalization: government takes control of factories and sets prices all towards war
• male citizens expected to fight in the war, and if couldn't fight work in factories
• female citizens expected to take over men's jobs, keep the nation's economy going, manufacture weapons and supplies, join women branches of armed forces, grow food, be nurses → increased a woman's pride and confidence, helped them get the right to vote!
• government wanted to keep complete casualty figures and discouraging news about WWI AWAY from public → so RESTRICTED: popular literature, historical writings, motion picture, the arts
• propaganda (spreading of one-sided info to convince someone of one PoV, promote a cause, damage opposing cause) used by government: motivate military mobilization, get people to loan money to gov., control public opinion, make people think they were winning, get people to enlist

US Entering WWI

• Ger. used unrestricted submarine warfare: sinking ships (even neutral) without warning
• May 1915: Ger. torpedoed British cruise the Lusitania, killing 139 US citizens, Ger. justified the sinking by saying it was smuggling weapons for GB (they were right), but Ger. promised US (to reduce public anger) to warn neutral ships before firing
• 1917: British blockade around Ger. ports left Ger. hungry and desperate → Ger. returned to unrestricted submarine warfare
• Ger. tried to starve GB into surrender but GB protected its boats with convoys
• Feb 1917: Zimmermann sent top secret telegram to Mexico, offering to help Mexico get back its land from Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona if it joined Central Powers and sneak attacked US → Britain intercepted it and made sure US newspapers have full access to telegram
• US public demanded war against Ger. when they saw the telegram in newspapers → April 2, 1917 US joined WWI on Allied Powers side

Russia Quitting WWI

• Russia lost more soldiers than any other nation due to poor military leadership, limited food, and little weapons and ammunition
• Russians blamed Tsar Nicholas II for military losses and rebels overthrew him in March 1917 → new government continued to fight along Eastern Front
• Ger. sneaked Lenin across border to have him rise to power in Russia and then make peace with Ger.
• Nov 1917: Bolsheviks with Lenin as leader, took control of Russia
• Treat of Brest Litovsk signed between Lenin and Ger. → Russia quit the war; Ger. ended the fight on the Eastern Front, sent troops there to the Western Front, no more two front war; France, Great Britain, and USA had more troops to fight on the Western Front, hated Lenin, waged war to get rid of Lenin

The END of WWI

• Russia withdrew, Ger. concentrated all military power on Western Front
• early June: Ger. on edge of Paris again
• Germans grew tired and began to run low on supplies, while 250,000 troops from US arrived every month to join FR and GB → did not have much military experience but brought much needed levels of energy, confidence, and optimism to battlefield
• one by one, Ger. allies abandoned the Central Powers
• Nov 9 1918: Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, Ger. had a republic whose first urgent task was ending the war
• NOVEMBER 11, 1918 at the STROKE OF 11:00 AM: the Great War came to an end, the last bullet flew (President Truman was there, and disgusted → impacted his decision in WWII)

Armistice

• an agreement to stop fighting
• WWI's signed on November 9, 1918

Financial Cost of WWI

• Germany had to pay $31 billion ($33 billion) in reparations over 30 years, Germany paid its last reparations installment in 2010!
• all the money that went towards manufacturing ONLY weapons (total war)

Human Cost of WWI

• millions died
• soldiers came home with shell shock, traumatized

Peace Process of WWI: Wilson's Fourteen Points

• hope and goal: make people use democracy, create a fair and morally correct plan with NO revenge
• Point 1. Ending Secret Treaties → fix problem of pre-war standing alliances
• Point 2. Freedom of the Seas → fix problem of unrestricted submarine warfare
• Point 3. Removing Economic Barriers or Tariffs on Trade → free trade would boost positive interaction between nations
• Point 4. Reducing the Size of Armies and Navys → fix problem of militarism
• Point 5. Changing Empires so they are fairer to the people that live in them → fix problem of growing nationalism
• Points 6-13: redrawing national boundaries according to self-determination → Wilson encouraged people around the world to embrace DEMOCRACY
• Point 14. Wilson thought this goal was the most IMPORTANT one, it was a chance for big and small countries to meet and discuss goals and problems (talk problems out, NOT fight). Made an international group dedicated to democracy called the "League of Nations"

"the Big Four" at the Paris Peace Conference

1. David Lloyd George: represented Britain, wanted to get resources to make Britain stronger

2. Vittorio Orlando: represented Italy, wanted land for Italy

3. Woodrow Wilson: represented USA, wanted democracy and fairness

4. Georges Clemenceau ("the Tiger"): represented France, wanted revenge and to make Germany forever weak

Peace Process of WWI: Treaty of Versailles

• Russia not invited to participate in the drafting of this because they were in the middle of a civil war and other countries were bitter because they had quit first
• Germany not invited to participate in the drafting of this because they were the ones being blamed for whole war
• officially signed in the Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles → showed off France's power, the Sun King built it
• officially signed on June 28, 1919 → exactly 5 years after Franz Ferdinand's murder
• this would never create "fair and lasting peace" because it wasn't fair, they whole war was being blamed on Germany
• forced territorial losses, military restrictions, and economic terms upon Germany
• took steps to create the League of Nations

Territorial Losses Forced Upon Germany by the Treaty of Versailles

• France took back control of Alsace and Lorraine (territories along Franco-German border) which were rich in coal and iron
• France took mines of Saar Basin which was rich in even more coal and iron from Germany
• Poland became a free nation by taking big pieces of land from Germany
• France, Great Britain, and Japan took over ALL of Germany's territories in Africa and Asia
• In total, Germany ended up losing 13% of its land and 10% of its population

Military Restrictions Forced Upon Germany by the Treaty of Versailles

• size of army was strictly limited and could only be "defensive" in nature (only enough to defend)
• German factories could never make any "war material" → very vague on purpose; could include submarines, airplanes, poison gas, machine guns, tanks, gun powder, gas masks, bombs, boots, helmets, pots and pans; made Germany have to buy a lot of weapons/stuff in general and severely weakened their military strength
• Germany's military could never again have submarines or airplanes
• Germany could never place any troops in the Rhineland, a territory located along the border between France and Germany. It was turned into a demilitarized zone, no troops or fighting could occur there.

Economic Terms Forced Upon Germany by the Treaty of Versailles

• losing territory → made Germany have less land for farming, factories, and raw materials
• losing percentage of its population → made Germany have less workers, investors, soldiers, customers, and tax payers
• Article 231, the "War Guilt Clause": Germany takes full responsibility for the war → was NOT historically accurate
• Allies demanded Germany pay reparations (money paid for war debt)
• in total, Germany had to pay $31 billion ($33 billion with taxes) in reparations over 30 years
• the Allies knew the amount they demanded in reparations would not be possible for Germany to pay off in the time given → made the demand because they wanted to embarrass and impoverish Germany. Can't build an army if they're broke!
• interesting fact: Germany paid off its last reparations installment in 2010!

Treaty of Versailles Took Steps to Create the Brand New League of Nations

• USA, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan would have permanent seats on the Executive Council → they were the winners of WWI, the Allied Powers
• the 42 nations that joined the Allied Powers during the war or remained neutral throughout it would have seats in the General Assembly
• GERMANY and RUSSIA not allowed to join League of Nations → not effective for achieving peace through diplomacy, it was doomed to fail because it left out the nations they disagreed with. Not able to talk out those problems and not equal

Peace Process of WWI: Territorial Changes

• Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Romania and Bulgaria LOST land to create Yugoslavia
• Yugoslavia was the country for Slavs Serbia wanted to create
• GERMANY lost land to create Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia → Allied Powers justified this because all the responsibility of the war fell on Germany
• Germany and Austria-Hungary had to give up territory to create Czechoslovakia
• Sudetenland was the Western portion of Czechoslovakia with the 3 million people living here considering themselves to be Germans, not Czechs → wanted to separate from Czechoslovakia and join Germany
• 6 million people living in Austria spoke German → post-war treaties forbid any anschluss (union of Austria and Germany) from happening

US and the Treaty of Versailles

• US could not officially sign this document without Congressional ratification of its terms → President Wilson brought the document to Washington DC to present its terms to public and Congress
• US public and Congress found the League of Nations term to be the most problematic and concerning
• many Americans believed US' best hope for peace was to stay out of European affairs (independent spirit) → League of Nations did not let them do that
• League of Nations may undermine Congress' power in foreign affairs → no American soldiers could be ordered to fight without Congress consent
• US NEVER signed the Treaty of Versailles or joined the League of Nations

Social Unrest: causes & failed revolts

• the Decembrists Revolt: army officers who defeated Napoleon (exposed to rights for citizens) came back to Russia, wanting a constitution. When Tsar Alexander I died, they placed their support behind Constantine, fought against Nicholas' loyal troops and were defeated. They were exiled to Siberia or executed → made Tsar Nicholas I rule with an iron fist
• Nicholas I crushed at least 500 peasant uprisings with landlords help → refused to free the serfs
• serfdom: peasants were bound to nobles and their land, could be bought, sold, beaten, or exiled to Siberia (and still be taxed), contributed to a slower growing economy and little factories, while Western Europe was going through the Ind. Rev. 90% of Russians depended on farming, 80% of Russians were these, led to bad trade, not many weapons, and no new tech
• autocracy: Tsars believed they were these and hence could do whatever they wanted, why they did not want reforms
• mirs: peasant community that owned land (typically farmland), created during Alexander II's reforms because he freed the serfs and they were given these, had to pay taxes for it. Peasants felt bound to the group because they had to pay a group tax (tax would not change even if people left). Peasants had to pay a poll tax. Peasants' taxes for these went to nobles who formerly owned the land.
• nihilism: belief of destruction and annihilation of everything, formed secret societies of this under Alexander II, wanted a fresh start
• narodniki: students who assassinated Alexander II and put their faith in the people, teaching them how to read, providing basic medical services and spreading ideas of revolution, hundreds were arrested and sent to Siberia → ones not became more radical over time
• Russification: Alexander III quest to increase autocracy, Eastern Orthodox Christianity, and nationality

Tsar Alexander I (strengths, weaknesses, policies)

• took small steps towards freeing the serfs but didn't
• defeated Napoleon
• forced his people to use scorched earth policy
• no revolts or revolution during his rule
• peaceful reform died with him
• his death brought revolt because it left uncertainty on who would rule Russia
• policies planted seed for the Decembrist Revolt
• considered taking small steps to reform serfdom before his sudden death

Tsar Nicolas I (strengths, weaknesses, policies)

• crushed at least 500 peasant uprisings with landlord's help in under 30 years
• no revolt/revolution
• refused to free the serfs
• his secret police hunted down anyone who spoke of change/reform
• his foreign policy was not successful
• the Crimean War (1853 to 1856 during his rule): Russia tried to take over parts of the Ottoman Empire but was defeated on their own soil, showed the autocratic government's weakness, showed that Russian technology was very behind France and Britain
• his rise to power included squashing the Decembrists
• military resume included an embarrassing loss in the Crimean War

Tsar Alexander II (strengths, weaknesses, policies)

• freed the serfs!
• he gave half the land to the nobles and rest to peasants who paid
• let people charged with crimes have public trials and be able to choose their lawyers
• set up zemstvos to deal with local matters like education and road maintenance
• expanded education opportunities
• mirs, he aided in the creation of, made peasants feel required to stay
• made only peasants pay at poll tax
• only peasants got the death penalty under him
• the amount of land available under his rule was limited
• had hundreds of peasants riots under his rule
• broke the autocratic tradition through the creation of locally elected councils (zemstvos)
• granted all people the right to a public trial with the lawyer of choice
• chose to lead forward with reform rather than have it forced upon him
• died after being struck by a bomb attack from radical student revolutionaries (narodniki)

Tsar Alexander III (strengths, weaknesses, policies)

• only thing that helped Russia was his death
• completely rejected reform
• reduced the power of zemstvos
• placed stricter limits on what could be published
• made his secret police watch secondary schools and universities
• required teachers to send detailed reports on students because of narodnikis
• anyone questioning the Tsar's absolute power, worshiping outside the Russian Orthodox Church, and speaking a language other than Russian perceived as dangerous
• other nationalist groups in Russia oppressed
• forced Jews to live in a special south-western part of the Empire, closed schools to them, and subjected them to laws that encourage prejudice
• while violent programs broke out against Jews under his rule, soldiers and police just watched
• strengthened Russian "autocracy, orthodoxy, and nationality" through vicious oppression
• seized power after his dad's (Alexander II) assassination
• equated openness to reform with weakness
• special policies resulted in programs flying up across Russia
• increased secret police's power
• used teachers to profile potentially dangerous students (narodniki)

Tsar Alexander III's Russification

• Alexander III's quest to achieve autocracy, orthodoxy, and nationality
• unify Russia under one nationality, religion (orthodoxy), and political ideology (autocracy)
• to achieve autocracy: secret police, teachers spying on students, rejecting reforms, limiting power of zemstvos, increasing censorship
• to achieve Eastern Orthodox Christianity: programs against Jews, other religions marked as dangerous, isolated Jewish people to south-west Russia (worst land for farming), limited education for Jewish people
• to achieve nationality: all non-Russians are potentially enemies, everyone had to speak/read/be fluent in Russian

Tsar Nicholas II (strengths, weaknesses, policies)

• encouraged the growth of Industries by investing national funds and foreign investments directly or by loaning money to local businesses
• ordered tariffs to protect Russian products from foreign ones
• with the help of Britain and French investors he began work on the Trans-Siberian Railroad (world's longest!)
• populations of cities and towns increased 45% from 1861 to 1870 under his rule
• refused a constitution, told zemstvos to forget it
• maintained the principle of autocracy
• factory working conditions were poor and wages were low under his rule
• he outlawed trade unions
• Russians face the same problems other countries (Manchester, Britain) had with rapid urbanization but this man did nothing to help
• the gap between the rich and the poor grew enormously under his rule
• suffered defeat at the Battle of Tsushima (38/40!)
• lacked the power to stop university students from reading Darwin and Marx's works

Tsar Nicholas II's Impact on Russia Moving Towards Revolution (1904-1917): the Russo-Japanese War of 1904

• Russia soundly defeated by Japan
• 38/40 Russian ships sunk in the Battle of Tsushima
• this increased unrest
• contributed to the Revolution of 1905
• made the government seem weak
• Tsar Nicholas II determined and desperate to prove himself to his own people and the world

Tsar Nicholas II's Impact on Russia Moving Towards Revolution (1904-1917): Bloody Sunday (January of 1905)

• Father George Gapon (a young Orthodox priest) organized a peaceful march through St Petersburg towards the Tsar's Winter Palace with the purpose of getting a constitution and unions legalized
• factory workers and their families got involved in the march hopeful Nicholas II would understand their plight
• seeing the crowd approaching the palace, the Tsar fled and called in soldiers
• people arrived at the Palace and saw troops, who then shot at them
• hundreds of men and women died
• marchers were chanting prayers and singing hymns
• workers carried holy icons and pictures of Nicholas II
• this killed people's faith and trust in Tsar Nicholas II
• after this: discontent exploded, strikes multiplied, in some cities workers took over local government, peasants revolted and demanded land, minority nationalities called for autonomy, and terrorists targeted officials
• made Nicholas II look like a monster and ruined his reputation

Tsar Nicholas II's Impact on Russia Moving Towards Revolution (1904-1917): the Duma

• was an elected national legislature
• no law would go into effect without this' approval
• the Tsar makes this to lift a general anger over Bloody Sunday
• this won over moderates, leaving radical groups and socialist isolated
• first met in 1906 but the Tsar quickly dissolved (fired) it when it criticized the government
• people were mad after Nicholas II fired the first one of these, so he appointed Peter Stolypin
• these continued to meet but were strictly conservative
• Nicholas II opposed all of the reforms this suggested because he believed he was doing his duty to God and Russians by "being firm"

Tsar Nicholas II's Impact on Russia Moving Towards Revolution (1904-1917): World War I

• war fueled national pride and united Russians
• factories could not turn out enough supplies
• armies marched out to war enthusiastically
• transportation system broke down allowing only a few critical materials to make it to the front
• 1915: many soldiers had no rifles and no ammunition
• poorly equipped and led soldiers died in large numbers
• in 1915 alone, there were 2 million Russian casualties
• the Tsar went to the Eastern Front to lead the army but he could not face the troops (spent his time writing in diary or playing dominoes) and was no better than many of his generals
• Tsar Nicholas II's biggest error and judgment because Russia had only started industrializing 10 years before

Tsarina Alexandra, Alexei Romanov, and Rasputin

• the German-born wife of Nicholas II
• when Nicholas II left the palace to live at the Eastern Front to personally supervise the war efforts and motivate the men, this woman controlled economics (farming, trade, employment), foreign relationships, lawmaking, collecting and spending taxes, road maintenance, making sure everyone is fed properly, basically everything BUT war
• had four daughters before her only son, Alexei
• was very protective of her son but let Rasputin near him because she trusted him and thought he had miraculous powers that could heal Alexei
• got a lot of advice from Rasputin, specifically to reject reform
• people assume this woman and Rasputin were having an affair
• rumors spread that she was a spy for the enemy, Germany
• many members of the Duma and her inner circle advised her, while she was openly morning Rasputin (no one to save her son), to withdraw from politics and allow the Tsar to choose the ministers and advisors who better understood the mood, but she did not listen!
• his birth was celebrated more enthusiastically because he was the Romanov heir
• born with hemophilia but this fact was hidden from the public because it was a weakness and people could easily hurt / kill him
• his illness allowed Rasputin to get close to the Tsar and Tsarina
• the entire royal family focused on keeping this individual's personal needs top secret
• won the Tsar and Tsarina over with his miraculous powers that healed their son of hemophilia
• exploited his closeness with the royal family for personal gain and got his unqualified friends powerful government jobs- offered a lot of advice to Tsarina including to reject reform → he told her this because he could lose power
• murdered by 3 young Russian aristocrats who gained widespread support in the capital so were never punished

The February Revolution, 1917

• disasters on the battlefield + food and fuel shortages + workers going on strike = brought the monarchy to the brink of collapse by March 1917
• workers who wanted better wages and women who couldn't feed their kids striked and rioted in the streets of St, Petersburg in late February 1917
• government's plan to break up the crowd was by shooting them, but the troops refused to fire and joined the protesters instead
• the protesters grew to 250,000
• pressure from military leaders and the Duma made Tsar Nicholas II abdicate in March 1917

From Vladimir I. Ulyanov to Vladimir I. Lenin

• older brother arrested and hanged for plotting to kill the Tsar when 17 → family was branded as a threat to state
• read Karl Marx, participated in student demonstrations, and spread Marxist ideas among socialists and workers
• arrested and sent to Siberia in 1895 (married wife there), once released he was sent into exile in Switzerland with wife
• returned to Russia in 1917 (with help of Germany) → wanted to further the revolution
• provisional government was in power, in his way → overthrew them within days
• gained support of the Russian people with this slogan: "Peace, Land, and Bread"

Provisional Government & Kerensky

• what the Duma created to maintain stability after the February Revolution, 1917 and Tsar Nicholas II abdicating
• leader of the Provisional Government in Russia after Tsar Nicholas II abdicated
• decided to continue the war with Germany and failed to deal with land reform → caused widespread popular unrest
• July 1917: launched a disastrous offensive against Germany in his name

Bolshevik Revolution: goals & aftermath

• aka the October / November Revolution, 1917
• the Red Guards joined mutinous sailors from the Russian fleet in attacking to provisional government
• within days, Lenin's forces overthrew the provisional government
• Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in other cities in Russia, but it took a week in Moscow
• after this, Lenin and the Bolsheviks created a new flag (that symbolized the union between workers and peasants, hammer and sickle), ended private ownership of land, distributed land to peasants, and gave workers control of factories and mines
• Lenin renamed the Bolsheviks: the Communists
• Civil war erupted in 1918 and lasted till 1921

The Russian Civil War

• 1918 to 1921: the Reds vs. the Whites
• the Reds: Communists/Bolsheviks, factory workers, peasants and led by Trotsky
• the Whites: counterrevolutionaries, tsarist imperial officers and advisors, tsar's troops, Mensheviks, boyars, democrats, US FR and GB troops, nationalist groups from former empire non-Russian regions, people who wanted to defeat the Bolsheviks
• Reds GOAL: stay in power, maintain their control of Russia
• Reds STRENGTHS: support of common people, more motivation to win, language, home terf advantage
• Reds WEAKNESSES: Britain, France, USA, and Japan were against them
• Whites GOAL: defeat the Bolsheviks and bring back the Tsar!
• Whites STRENGTHS: US, GB, FR, and Japan sent troops, Japan seized old Tsarist Russia land, better weapons, more money for weapons, experienced troops
• Whites WEAKNESSES: different languages = barriers, didn't know the land, didn't work well together, not as motivated (for most it wasn't THEIR country), tired from WWI, fewer numbers
• Lenin used "war communism" to turn Russia into an effective fighting force → government took over banks, factories, mines, and railroads; peasants forced to give all crops to feed army and people in cities; peasants and laborers forced to work in factories (broke peace and bread promise, peasants tried to resist by stop giving and hiding grain, refusing to work in factory)
• Reds had Cheka (secret police) that executed ordinary citizens
• Reds had network of labor camps that grew under Stalin
• Reds (Trotsky policy) would shoot every 10th man if unit performed poorly
• Res (Trotsky ordered) murdered the Tsar, Tsarina, and their 5 children to prevent them from being saved by Whites and become a rallying symbol
• Whites slaughtered Communist prisoners and tried to assassinate Lenin on many times
• 10 million died by the end
• the Reds won

Changing Leadership in the USSR: Lenin's policies

• after Bolshevik Revolution (1917), he created a new flag, ended private ownership of land, distributed land to peasants, and gave workers control of factories and mines
• used "war communism" during the Russian Civil War to make Russia an effective fighting force → government took over banks, factories, mines, and railroads; peasants forced to give all crops to feed army and people in cities; peasants and laborers forced to work in factories (war communism betrayed the Bolshevik's peace and bread promises, peasants did not like this, tried to resist by: stop giving grain, hiding grain, refusing to work in a factory)
• Lenin had to help USSR recover from economic cost, physical destruction, and human toll of WWI and Russian Civil War → New Economic Policy (NEP) help nation recover financially in 1921
• NEP: let small businesses reopen for private profit, peasants allowed to own small plots of land and could freely sell their surplus crops, government stopped squeezing the peasants for grain, allowed some capitalist ventures, government still tightly controlled banks, foreign trade, and large industries, succeeded because by 1928 food and industrial production were back to prewar levels and the standard of living improved
• no more private ownership of land
• peasant given land
• "Peace, Land, and Bread"
• workers given control of factories and mines
• citizens over 18 could vote → people felt represented
• used the Cheka to solidify his rule
• peasants were still poor
• workers were treated badly with low wages and forced labor
• created Comintern (Communist International) to encourage worldwide revolution, aided revolutionary groups and urged colonial people to rise up against imperialists, spread loud propaganda against capitalism, made Western Powers suspicious of USSR

the New Economic Policy

• Lenin launched this to help the USSR heal financially in 1921
• let small businesses reopen for private profit
• peasants allowed to own small plots of land and could freely sell their surplus crops
• government stopped squeezing the peasants for grain
• allowed some capitalist ventures
• helped the Soviet economy and ended armed resistance to the new government
• but government still tightly controlled banks, foreign trade, and large industries
• Lenin rationalized this by saying it was only temporary (his successor would bring back "pure" communism)
• succeeded because by 1928 food and industrial production were back to prewar levels and the standard of living improved

COMPARE: war communism vs. the New Economic Policy

• WC: military gets government support → the army comes first
• WC: peasants forced to be drafted or work in factories
• BOTH: Lenin's ideas
• BOTH: temporary (WC for Russian Civil War and NEP until Lenin's successor brought back "pure" communism)
• NEP: peasants were not squeezed for grain
• NEP: allowed small private businesses
• NEP: peasants got small plots of land and could sell their surplus crops
• NEP: had CAPITALISM

Changing Leadership in the USSR: succession problems

• Lenin suffered the first of a series of debilitating strokes in 1922 which kept him out of public eye for 2 years (did not want to show their leader being weak)
• TWO potential successors to Lenin: Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin
• Trotsky's STRENGTHS: brilliant Marxist thinker, skillful speaker (fiery! passionate!), good general, really involved in the Bolshevik Revolution, turned the Red Army into an effective fighting force (leader of the Reds!), everybody knows him → "Lenin's Right-Hand Man", got approval to kill and killed the royal family → famous!
• Trotsky's WEAKNESSES: urged support for a worldwide revolution (didn't focus on Russia), ignored Russia's internal problems (economic, wars), known for brutality, had a temper = enemies!, wanted to spread the revolution now!
• Stalin's STRENGTHS: cautious, wanted to focus on Russia first, General Secretary of the Communist Party (worked for the government), poker face! (never shared his opinion) → an unknown "blank slate"
• Stalin's WEAKNESSES: not a scholar, he was ambitious (but kept it to himself), not known outside then government
• Lenin's Personal Opinion from his "Last Testament" (paraphrased by yours truly): Stalin is too rude and should be replaced by someone more tolerant, loyal and polite. If Stalin gains power, a civil war would occur and Russia would be split
• Trotsky's fate: fled from the USSR (aware Stalin saw him prime as threat). Moved around Europe for years, settled down in Mexico. On August 20, 1940 (after surviving an earlier assassination attempt): T. died from wounds inflicted by an ice pick to the head. His murder was a conclusion to Stalin's murder campaign against Old Bolshevik leadership. Ramon Mercader, tried and found guilty for killing T.; after serving a 20 year sentence, he returned to Eastern Europe where he was hailed a hero