Research Methods in POLSC- Midterm

What is the goal of the scientific method?

To use verifiable results to construct casual theories that explain why phenomena behave the way that they do

What are the most important components of the scientific method?

Knowledge, construction of theory, verification, falsifiability

Inductive

One draws an inference from a set of propositions and observations. Specific to general

The Scientific Method

1. Identify the problem, 2. Research Questions, 3. Theory, 4. Hypotheses, 5. Empirical analysis

What is a literature review?

Systemic examination and interpretation of the literature for the purpose of informing further work on a topic

Methods for writing a lit review

Method 1: Focus on individual references, Method 2: Focus on concepts, ideas, and methods

How to write lit review

Scientific relevance, building a theory, disagreement to the literature, and data and methods

Independent variable (in polsc)

A phenomena that will help explain political characteristics or behavior

Empiricism

Uses observation to judge the tenability of arguments

Deductive

Arguments are proven to be true through the use of several logical statements in which a conclusion is true because the underlying premise is true. General to specific.

Dependent variable (in polsc)

Thought to be caused, to depend on, or to be a function of the independent variable

What is an independent variable?

An independent variable is thought to influence, affect, or cause variation in another variable

What is a dependent variable?

A dependent variable is thought to depend upon or be caused by variation in an independent variable

Antecedent variable

A variable that occurs prior to all other variables

Intervening variable

A variable that occurs closer in time to the dependent variable

A casual relationship has three components:

1. X and Y covary, 2. the change in X precedes the change in Y, 3. covariation between X and Y is not a coincidence

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

1. Empirical v. Normative, 2. Relationship between the occurrences, 3. Plausibility, 4. State the direction of the relationship, 5. Consistent with the data, 6. Data should be feasible to obtain and would indicate if the hypothesis is defensible

A hypothesis must...

Specify a unit of analysis

Cross-level analysis

A type of analysis in which researchers use data collected for one unit of analysis to make interference about another unit of analysis

Ecological inference

To use aggregate data to study the behavior of individuals

Ecological fallacy

The use of information that shows a relationship for groups to infer that the same relationship exists for individuals when in fact there is no such relationship at the individual level

Conceptualization

the process of defining a term

Operationalization

determining how a concept will be measured, such as deciding how to record empirical observations of the occurrence of an attribute or behavior using numerals or scores.

Applied research

Research is designed to produce knowledge useful in altering a real-world condition or situation.

Empirical research

Research-based on actual, "objective" observation of phenomena.

Pure, theoretical, or recreational research

Research designed to satisfy one's intellectual curiosity about some phenomena.

Constructionism

An approach to knowledge that asserts humans actually construct- through their social interactions and cultural and historical practices- many facts they take for granted as having an independent, objective, or material reality.

Critical theory

The philosophical stance that disciplines such as political science should assess society critically and seek to improve it, not merely study it objectively.

Empiricism

Relying on observation to verify propositions.

Normative knowledge

Knowledge that is evaluative, value-laden, and concerned with prescribing what ought to be.

Nonnormative knowledge

Knowledge is concerned not with evaluation or prescription but with factual or objective determinations.

Literature review

A systemic examination and interpretation of the literature for the purpose of informing further work on a topic.

Convergent construct validity

When a measure of a concept is related to a measure of another concept with which the original concept is thought to be associated.

Dichotomous variable

A variable with only two categories- these variables are special cases as they can be used at the nominal, ordinal, or even ratio level.

Intervening variable

A variable coming between an independent variable and a dependent variable in an explanatory scheme.

Discriminant construct validity

A method of demonstrating measurement validity by comparing two measures that theoretically are expected NOT to be related.

Ordinal-level measure

Indicates that the values assigned to a variable can be compared in terms of having more or less of a particular attribute.

Interval-level measure

Includes the properties of the nominal level and the ordinal level. But unlike nominal and ordinal measures, the intervals between the categories or values assigned to the observations do have meaning.

Nominal-level measure

Indicates that the values assigned to a variable represent only different categories or classifications for that variable

Ratio-level measure

This type of measurement involves the full mathematical properties of numbers and contains the most possible information about a measured concept

Cluster sample

A probability sample is used when no list of elements exists. The sampling frame initially consists of clusters of elements.

Convenience sample

A nonprobability sample in which the selection of elements is determined by the researcher's convenience.

Disproportionate sample

A stratified sample in which elements sharing a characteristic are underrepresented or overrepresented in the sample.

Nonprobability sample

A sample for which each element in the total population has an unknown probability of being selected.

Population parameter

A characteristic or an attribute in a population (not a sample) that can be quantified.

Probability sample

A sample for which each element in the total population has a known probability of being selected.

Proportionate sample

A probability sample that draws elements from a stratified population at a rate proportional to the size of the samples.

Purposive sample

A non-probability sample in which a researcher uses discretion in selecting elements for observation.

Sample bias

The bias occurs whenever some elements of a population are systemically excluded from a sample. It is usually due to an incomplete sampling frame or a nonprobability method of selecting elements.

test-retest method

Conduct test to same observation in 2 periods

alternative form

2 different methods of measure for the same concept

split halves

2 measures of the same concept at the same time

summation index

combines the scores on multiple question to create one single measure of a concept

likert scale

uses only select questions from an index that differentiate between different respondents to create a single score for each respondent

guttman scale

determines how strongly a surveyed person holds an opinion by using a series of yes or no questions or agree or disagree statements

mokken scale

hierachical scaling method similar to guttman scale

sample

any subset of units collected in some manner from the population

population

any well-defined set of units of analysis

sample statistic

used to approxiamate the corresponding population or values

statistical inference

supportable conjecture about the unknown characteristics of a population on a sample statistic

estimator

a sample statistic based on a sample observation that estimates the numerical characteristic or parameter

sampling error

difference between a sample statistic and population parameter

sampling distribution

a theoretical frequency distribution of a statistic generated from an infinite number of samples drawn from a population

element/ unit of analysis

a single occurrence, realization, or instance of the objects or entities being studied

sampling frame

a list from which sampling units are drawn into a sample

stratum

a subgroup of a population that has one or more characteristics

snowball sample

relies on elements in the target population to identify other elements in the population for inclusion in the sample and is particularly useful when studying hard to locate or identify populations

quota sample

elements are chosen for inclusion in a non-probabilistic manner in proportion to their representation in the population

purposive or judgmental sample

study a diverse or limited number of observations, a case study