AP Gov: Everything Studying

1st Amendment

Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition. Free Excercise Clause and Establishment Clause. (Amendment)

2nd Amendment

Right to bear arms. (Amendment)

3rd Amendment

No quartering of soldiers in homes during peacetime. (Amendment)

4th Amendment

Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures. (Amendment)

5th Amendment

No convictions w/out due process, no double-jeopardy or self-incrimination. (Amendment)

6th Amendment

Right to fair and speedy trial by jury in criminal cases. (Amendment)

8th Amendment

No cruel and unusual punishments, no excessive bail. (Amendment)

9th Amendment

Unenumerated rights are not automatically denied. (Amendment)

10th Amendment

Powers not given to the Federal Government go to the states or people. (Amendment)

13th Amendment

Abolishes Slavery and involuntary servitude. (Amendment)

14th Amendment

Due Process Clause applies the BoR to states, substantive due process, Equal Protection Clause. (Amendment)

15th Amendment

Right to vote can’t be denied based on race, color, or previous conditions of servitude. In short terms, Men suffrage (Amendment)

16th Amendment

Gives Congress power to collect income taxes w/out apportioning it among states based on population. (Amendment)

17th Amendment

Established direct election of senators by the people. (Amendment)

19th Amendment

Woman Voting Rights #Feminism #6’7 btw #Ihateperiods. (Amendment)

22nd Amendment

Limits President term to 2 years. (Amendment)

24th Amendment

Abolishes poll taxes(no tax required to vote). (Amendment)

25th Amendment

Vice president takes office if president is deemed as disabled. (Amendment)

26th Amendment

Lowers voting age to 18. (Amendment)

Article 1

Establishes Legislative Branch. Creates and defines Congress. Gives all lawmaking power to Congress. States manage elections but Congress can make rules. Each house sets its own rules and can punish or impeach members. Bills must pass both Houses, the go to the President to be signed or vetoed. Listed Congress’ powers and limited Congress and states. (Article)

Article 2

Establishes Executive Branch. Defines purpose and power of President and Vice-President. Explains Electoral College system. Made requirements to be president. Gave president powers like: Commander in chief of military, grant pardons, make treaties—with Senate approval, appoint judges ambassadors and other officials—with Senate approval. Officials can be impeached from office for treason, bribery, or other high crimes (Article)

Article 3

Establishes Judicial Branch. Created the SC. Gives Congress power to create lower courts. Judges hold their positions for life. Judges’ pay can’t be reduced while they’re in office. Fed courts can hear cases involving: The Constitution, Federal laws, treaties, disputes between states or citizens of different states, and cases involving foreign affairs. SC mainly hear appeals and has original jurisdictions in very few case—like disputed between states. Defines Treason.(Article)

Article 4

Deals with powers and responsibilities of the states and their relationship with each other and with the federal government. (Article)

Article 5

How to amend/change the Constitution. (Article)

Article 6

Basically just the Supremacy Clause. If State law conflicts with federal law, federal government will always win. Also there’s the elastic clause (Article)

Article 7

Ratification process. Constitution can only pass if 9/13 states approves—basically no chance it will be on the AP test but good to know.(Article)

The Preamble

Explains the purpose and guiding principles of the Constitution. “We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”

Marbury v. Madison

President John Adams appointed many judges right before his term came to an end. When Thomas Jefferson took office, his secretary refused to deliver the commissions to judges. One of the judges issued a writ of mandams. SC ruled in favor of secretary, saying it is out of their jurisdiction according to Article 3. Case ended in SC giving itself power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution or Judicial Review. (Court Case)

McCulloch v. Maryland

Congress made the 2nd bank of US, the state wanted to tax it. The cashier at the bank refused to pay tax and the state sued the cashier. SC ruled in favor of federal government and against the state, saying the state can’t tax the federal government due to the Supremacy Clause. Case ended in the first use of the Elastic Clause, strengthening the Federal Government and expanded the Constitution’s Interpretations. (Court Case)

US v. Lopez

A student brought a gun to a HS in Texas, he was charged under gun-free Act—a state law restricting firearms. The student argued Congress had no power to pass that law because it doesn’t involve interstate commerce, SC ruled that Congress doesn't have the power to control the carrying f guns on school ground according to the Commerce Clause. Case ended in limited power of Congress under Commerce Clause, and signals limits to the Federal Governments reach. (Court Case)

Wisconsin v. Yoder

Amish parents want to send their kids to religion school after 8th grade instead of high school, state law required children to attend school until they’re 16. SC ruled in favor of the Amish, stating the Free Exercise Clause of the 1st Amendment outweighed the state law. This case strengthened religious liberty in US and started discussion around homeschooling and parental rights. (Court Case)

Engel v. Vitale

State passed a law for public schools in NY that makes the school start with a voluntary prayer for public schools to recreate each morning. Parents sued saying the prayer violated separation of church and state. SC ruled in favor of parents and stated that even if it is voluntary, if stare-sponsored, it violates the Establishment Clause of the 1st Amendment. Case resulted in limits on religious activities in public schools and emphasizes that government can’t promote or endorse religion. (Court Case)

Schenck v. US

Man handed out leaflets urging people to resist the WW1 draft. He was charged under the Espionage Act. SC ruled against man saying Free speech is not absolute especially during war times. This case set precedent for limiting speech during war times. (Court Case)

New York Times v. US

News paper company got their hands on the Pentagon papers—top secret papers documenting the Vietnam War, and started publishing it. The government used prior restraint to prevent the company from publishing. SC ruled in favor of the company stating the importance of a free and independent press—in order to the keep in government’s power in check. This case strengthened the 1st Amendment, limited prior restraint, and established the press’s role as the government’s watchdog. (Court Case)

Tinker v. DeMoines

Students wore black armbands to express desire for a truce in the Vietnam War. The high school didn’t like it and said it disturbing the learning environment and put a strict dress code on the armbands. Because of the dress code some students got suspended and their parents sued. SC ruled in favor of the students, deciding that the freedom of speech of the 1st Amendment outweighs the government’s interest in maintaining a safe environment. This case strengthened the 1st Amendment, set precedent that school must determine that the student’s 1st Amendment must substantially interfere with the school’s ability to maintain discipline. (Court Case)

McDonald v. Chicago

Man lives in a high crime area and wanted a gun for protection. State had very strict gun laws and prevented man from obtaining a firearm. Man sued arguing the firearm ban violated his 2nd Amendment rights. SC ruled in favor of man, stating the 2nd Amendment is a fundamental right. Case ended in the 2nd Amendment applying to states via due process clause of 14th Amendment, strengthened the idea that the BoR should be applied to states. (Court Case)

Gideon v. Wainwright

Man broke into a pool hall with the intent of committing relatively minor crimes. He was arrested but too broke to afford a lawyer and asked the court to appoint him one. But state only provided free lawyers for capital cases—cases where death penalty is possible, so man had to represent himself in trial and lost. He sued arguing his 6th Amendment has been violated. SC ruled in favor of man saying he was denied his fundamental right and the 6th now applies to states via due process clause of 14th Amendment. (Court Case)

Grisworld v. Connecticut

Woman opens up a clinic selling/advising the purchase of contraceptives, state law banned the use of contraceptives. Woman was arrested for violating state law, woman sued saying it violated people’s constitutional rights. SC ruled in favor of woman, saying the Constitution protects a right to privacy—an unenumerated right, this case used the 1-5 and 9th amendment. Case ended in establishment of the constitutional right to privacy and strengthened the 9th Amendment.

Roe v. Wade

Woman wants to an abortion, state law only allowed abortion to save woman’s life—not for rape, poverty, or simple choice, woman sued claiming the state abortion law was unconstitutional. SC ruled in favor of woman, stating the right to privacy under due process of 14th extends to abortion but the right was not unlimited. Case ended with nationally legalization of abortion in early pregnancy and strengthened idea of privacy rights. This case was later overturned in Dobbs v. Jackson (Court Case)

Dobbs v. Jackson

State passed law called Gestational Age Act—which bans most abortions after 15 weeks of pregnancy, an abortion clinic challenged the law saying it violated constitutional rights to abortion under Roe v. Wade. SC ruled in favor of state, saying the Constitution doesn’t guarantee right to abortion—cuz it’s not deeply rooted in nation’s history and not explicitly mentioned in constitution. Case ended in authority to regulate abortions going back to states, abortion laws are now decided state-by-state, shows 14th due process is now interpreted more narrowly in certain areas, and overturned Roe v. Wade. (Court Case)

Brown v. Board of Education

Public schools in many states were segregated by race but it was legal under Plessy v. Ferguson’s decision segregation is ok if it’s “separate but equal”. Girl had to travel very far to a black school even though a white school was much closer, her family sued saying it violates the Constitution. SC ruled in favor of girl, saying separate educational facilities are unequal, this violates the equal protection clause of the 14th because it denies equal access to education for black children. Case ended declaring school segregation unconstitutional. (Court Case)

Baker v. Carr

State’s voting districts hadn’t be redrawn in decades even though population has shifted a lot. Rural areas had way fewer people but just as much representation as urban areas. Man sued state, arguing his vote was being diluted—not being fairly counted, because the districts were outdated. SC ruled in favor of man, ruling that federal courts can hear lawsuits about legislative apportionment—how districts are drawn, and that this case is a constitutional issue involving equal protection clause. Case ended in opening the door to future cases about voting and representation, and strengthened voting rights. (Court Case)

Shaw v. Reno

State drew very stupid line made up of black voter—majority-minority(where racial minority group makes up majority of voters), 5 white voters sued arguing it was racial gerrymandering and it violated Equal Protection clause of 14th. SC ruled in favor of 5 white men, stating districts drawn mainly based on race are subject to strict scrutiny, even if goal was to help minority voters using race too heavily in district drawing is unconstitutional, drawing that stupid line based on race violated Equal protection clause of 14th. Case ended with racial gerrymandering not automatically banned but if race is the main reason behind how the district is drawn it will be a strict scrutiny, and districts must be drawn based primarily on traditional factor, not race alone. (Court Case)

Citizens United v. FEC

Nonprofit organization wanted to air film criticizing Hillary Clinton during the presidential election. Commission argued that the film violated campaign finance laws because it was funded with corporate money—corporation were banned from directly spending on political campaigns, nonprofit sued arguing corps have the same 1st rights as individuals to spend money of political speech—including ads—and restrictions are unconstitutional. SC ruled in favor of nonprofit, stating corps and unions can spend unlimited $ on independent political speech, spending money on political speech is a form of free speech, government can’t restrict independent expenditures by corps, unions, etc. even if it may influence elections. (Court Case)

Federalist 10

Written by James Madison, addresses the problem of factions. Factions are inevitable due to nature of man and eliminating them would destroy liberty. A large and strong federal republic is the best defense against the dangers of factions. More diversity makes it harder for any one faction to dominate. (Foundational Document)

Federalist 51

Written by James Madison, explains how the structure of government will preserve liberty. Government must be controlled by the governed, but also be able to control itself. Powers are divided into 3 independent branches and keep each other in check(Checks and balance system). A federal system—dividing power between national and state governments provides an extra layer of protection. Ultimate goal is to protect minority rights against tyranny of the majority. (Foundational Document)

Federalist 70

Written by Alexander Hamilton, arguing for a single powerful president to ensure an effective, responsible, and responsive government. A good government needs energy in the executive. Clearer accountability, quick decisive actions, avoids conflict and confusion that might turn into a civil war. Multiple executives lead to disagreements and lack of accountability. (Foundational Document)

Federalist 78

Written by Alexander Hamilton, focusing on the role and importance of the Judicial branch—mainly judicial review. Judicial branch a weak frail boy because no power in military or money, only judgement. Judges must be independent to protect the Constitution and rights from legislative overreach. Courts have duty to strike down laws that conflict with the Constitution—principle of Judicial review. Constitution all-mighty, no ordinary law stand against the alpha. Independent judiciary with power of Judicial review is essential to protect constitutional rights and prevent abuse of power in other branches. (Foundational Document)

Brutus 1

Anti-Federalist Essay, proposing US Constitution made central government too powerful and too distant from people—which threatens rights of people and authority of states. Large republics don’t work because it doesn’t truly represent the people—true democracy only works in small localized republics. Too much Federal power with the addition of Elastic and Supremacy clause to Congress—nearly unlimited power for them which can lead to tyranny. Federal authority would overpower the states. No likey BoR cuz it lacks clear list of protected individual rights. Basically once we give government too much power, its hard to take back.(Foundational Document)

Letter from Birmingham Jail

Written by MLK Jr, arguing immediate action against racial injustice, emphasizing the urgency and necessity of the civil rights movements. Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere—justice delayed too long is justice denied. People have responsibility to break unjust laws nonviolently. Mad at white moderates who prefer order over true justice, often delaying progress. Criticizes religious leaders and churches for not standing up boldly for civil rights despite their preaching of love and justice. (Foundational Document)

The Declaration of Independence

A statement of American’s political values and a formal break from the British rule. All men are created equal and have the rights including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Government are created to protect those rights, power of the government comes from the governed. If government becomes a tyrant, people have the right to abolish it. Complaints against King George III, showing he violated the rights. (Foundational Document)

Checks and Balance

Core principle/system of the US government designed to ensure no single branch becomes too powerful. Works by giving each branch the ability to monitor and limit the actions of others.

Pluralism

Power not held by a single group, but rather spread out among many groups. Groups compete in a way where they all win and lose some but never all. Groups keep each other in check. Groups play by the rules, very few groups resort to immoral ways. They think lobbying is good because everyone can do it. (Political Theory)

Elitism

Thinks groups are meaningless. Large corporations holds the most power. Even if groups win a small battle, the large corporations win the wars. Lobbying is a problem because it benefits few at the expense of many. (Political Theory)

Hyperpluralism

Thinks interest groups are out of control. Groups are too strong and because the government is seeking to suck them all off they are there by weakened—taking money from their pocket to please the interest groups making themselves poor. (Political Theory)

Populism

Thinks that the government is out of touch with today’s society. Wants to return the power to the people. Appeals to underrepresented/mistreated people who feel ignored or at a disadvantage by the current system. (Political Theory)

Egalitarianism

Belief in equality especially equal rights, opportunities, and treatment for all people. All people are fundamentally equal in moral worth and value. Society should remove class based on wealth, gender, race, or social status. (Political Theory)

Individualism

Emphasizes the importance of individual freedom, rights, and personal responsibility over the group or collective. Give people more freedom. Government should not interfere with the rights of people. (Political Theory)

Categorical Grants

Federal money given to states for a specific purpose. Because of this grant you must follow federal rules if you requested funding.

Block Grants

Federal money given for broad purposes with fewer restrictions. States decides how to spend it within a general area.

Project Grants

Funding provided to support a specific limited-time project. Funds must be used for project described in application. Very competitive to apply for. (Grant)

Formula Grants

Government gives money to states based on a set formula—like population or income levels. You don’t have to compete, just qualify. (Grant)

Mandates

Federal requirements that states must follow, sometimes unfunded—meaning even if states didn’t get funding they still have to comply.

Pork Barrel

When a politician gets funding for a project in their hometown (i.e. new bridge, park, or museum)

Independent Expenditure

Donations or spending money to influence an election without working with the candidate.

Soft Money

Unlimited money given to a political party and not the candidate. Used for general support, not specific campaigns.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

Organization that collects donations and then uses the money to influence elections. Has limited donations and spending. Must report where the money comes from and where its being spent.

Super PAC

Like PAC but can spend as much as it wants on ads, events, or messages to influence an election as long as it doesn’t directly work with the candidate. Unlimited donations, spending. Must report donors and spending to FEC

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

Basically a referee for money in national elections. It makes sure candidates, PACs, and Super PACs are following the rules about who can donate, how much, and how the money is reported. They track money, set limits on donations, make sure groups disclose their donors, investigate possible violations of finance laws.

Bully pulpit

When a leader uses their visibility and voice to push ideas, shape debates, or rally support, even if they can’t make laws themselves. Basically it’s a platform to speak and be heard.

Filibuster

The action of delaying/stopping a bill from moving forward by letting the senator yap nonstop. Only happens in senate. They need 60 votes to cloture it.

Incorporation Doctrine

Applying the BoR to states

Congressional Oversight

The action of Congress keeps an eye on what the government is doing to make sure it’s doing its job legally and efficiently.

Judicial Review

When courts check if laws or government actions follow the Constitution. If they don’t courts can strike them down.

Constitutional Convention

Meeting held in Philadelphia in 1787 where delegates from 12 or the 13 original states came together to create a new Constitution for the US. Purpose was to fix the weakness of AoC. Ended up writing a new Constitution and made strong central gov w 3 branches.

New Jersey Plan

Every state should have equal power in Congress. Unicameral. Congress can tax and regulate trade. Favored by smaller states, who fear losing influence to big states. Plan wasn’t adopted, but influenced great compromise. Proposed to go against Virginia plan. (Plan/Compromise)

Virginia Plan

Big states should get more votes in Congress because more people. Bicameral. Legislature could make laws, tax and regulate trade. Government > State. Large states loves it. Combines HoR and Senate. Wasn’t adopted. (Plan/Compromise)

Connecticut/Great Compromise

Settled debate over large and small states. Created bicameral Congress(HoR & Senate). Big states get what they want in the House and small states get want they want in the Senate. (Plan/Compromise)

Three-Fifths Compromise

Solves how enslaved people would be counted for population to be represented. Slaves count as 3/5th of a person. Southern wanted them to count fully—to get more seats in House, while Northern didn’t want them counted at all—because slaves were seen as property. (Plan/Compromise)

Slave Trade Compromise

Congress couldn’t ban the slave trade for 20 yrs—until 1808.Southern state wanted them to keep being imported for plantation. Northern state didn’t use slaves that much and wanted to stop the trade. Slavery continued until the 13th was passed. (Plan/Compromise)

Fugitive Slave Clause

If enslaved person ran away to a state where slavery was illegal, that state still had to send them back.

Commerce Clause

Clause that says Congress can make laws about buying, selling and trading things—between states and with other countries.

Electoral College

System used to elect the President and the Vice President. People vote for a group of people called electors. Each state has a certain # of electors—depending on how many members it has in Congress, there are 538 electors in total. A candidate needs majority to win presidency. Most states give all their electors to the candidate who gets the most votes in that state. Even though people vote directly the president is offcially chosen by this.

Standing Committee

Permanent committee in Congress that handles specific types of issues or laws i.e. education, health care, or military. They study bills, hold hearings, and make changes before the full Congress votes.

Select Committee

Temporary committee in Congress created to investigate or study a specific issue that isn’t already handled by standing committee. Not permanent-created for a social reason. Usually focuses on particular events or problems like crisis, scandals, or national issues. After job is done, this committee is usually disbanded.

Joint Committee

Committee made up of members from Congress. Can be both permanent and temporary. Handles issues that affect both chambers—like the economy or government printing. They study issues, hold hearings, or manage administrative tasks.

Conference Committee

Temporary committee in Congress that created to resolve differences between HoR and Senate’s versions of a bill. Basically a negotiation team that helps both sides agree on the exact wording of a law.

Articles of Confederation

The first written plan of government for the US. They made a weak national government with most powers given to states. There was no president and no national court system. Congress can make laws, but not enforce them. Congress couldn’t collect taxes. Each state had 1 vote, no matter the size. System was bad because national government couldn’t solve problems like paying debts, regulating trade, or keep order.

Executive order

Rule or command given by the President that has the force of law. President can use it to direct how the government should operate.

Iron Triangle

Concept that describes the relationships between Congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups. Basically a checks and balance system for those 3.

Interest Groups

Organization of people who share common goals or interests and try to influence government decisions. Main job is lobbying to benefit their members or cause.

Bureaucratic agencies

Government organizations that help carry out and enforce laws passed by Congress. Part of the Executive Branch. Ex. FBI, IRS, FDA

McCain-Feingold Act

Act that aimed to regulate the financing of political campaigns. They banned political parties from raising or spending any soft money. restricted funding of ads/electioneering. This act was later found unconstitutional in Citizens United v. FEC and overturned.

Delegate

A representative who's job is to cast votes to help choose the party’s presidential nominee.

Superdelegate

A special delegate in the Democratic party who can vote for whoever they want —they’re usually an important party member like senators, but they can only vote if no one wins in the first round.

National party convention

Meeting held by a political party every 4 yrs to officially choose their presidential candidate. Delegates vote for their nominee, parties agree on platforms—their goals and belief, basically a big pep rally and decision making event.

Dark Money

Political spending meant to influence elections where donors are not disclosed to the public.

Revolving Door

Movement of people between government jobs and private sector jobs, especially in industries they used to regulate or oversee. Basically leaving a government job and getting hired by the company that you used to watch over.

Electioneering

Doing things to try to influence the outcome of an election. i.e. campaigning, posting signs, running political ads, speaking publicly to support or oppose a candidate. This is banned to keep a fair voting process.

Litigation

Process of taking a legal dispute to court. Used when parties want a legal ruling on an issue, often involving lawsuits or legal battles.