BIOL 1203: Lab Exam

*Does not include heart anatomy or fetal pig circulation anatomy

Erythrocyte

• Lack of nucleus

Lymphocyte

• Large, dark-staining nucleus

• Little cytoplasm

• Agranular

Neutrophil

• Multilobed (3-5 segments) nucleus

• Granular

Monocyte

• Horseshoe-shaped nucleus

• Agranular

Eosinophil

• Two-lobed nucleus

• Granular

• More orange-red compared to basophils

Basophil

• Two-lobed, difficult to see nucleus

• Granular

• More purple compared to eosinophils

Which leukocytes are granulocytes?

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

Which leukocytes are agranulocytes?

Lymphocytes, monocytes

Which cells make up the buffy coat?

White blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets

Which two blood vessels have an internal and external elastic membrane? Why?

The aorta and pulmonary trunk, to withstand higher pressures from blood leaving the heart

Artery

• Thick tunica intima

• Has external elastic membrane

• Often filled with red blood cells (red middle_

Layers of artery, outermost to innermost

Tunica externa → external elastic membrane → tunica media → tunica intima → endothelium → lumen

Vein

• Collapsed lumen

• Lack of external elastic membrane

Layers of vein, outermost to innermost

Tunica externa → tunica media → tunica intima → endothelium → lumen

What cell type is the tunica intima?

Simple squamous epithelium

Frog intestine

• Lots of surface area in the lumen for nutrient absorption

Layers of frog intestine, from outermost to innermost

Longitudinal smooth muscle → circular smooth muscle → connective tissue → columnar epithelial tissue → lumen → villi

Lung bronchus

• Innermost layer has ridges surrounding the lumen

• Supported by smooth muscle and hyaline cartilage (with lacunae)

Lung bronchiole

• Not surrounded by cartilage

• Smaller than bronchus

Lung alveoli and capillaries

• Red lines are capillaries filled with red blood cells

• White gaps in between capillaries are the alveoli

Liver portal triad

• Has a branch of hepatic vein, branch of hepatic artery, and bile duct

Which cell type in the liver performs fat metabolism?

Hepatocytes

How many cells are in a morula?

16 cells

Layers of gastrula, from outermost to innermost

Ectoderm → mesoderm→ endoderm

What is the fluid-filled cavity of a blastocyst called?

Blastocoel

Morula

• Packed cluster of 16 cells, looks like raspberries

Blastocyst

• Central cavity surrounded by an epithelial layer (hollow ball of cells)

Gastrula

• Contains an ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm (outermost to innermost)

• Has one pore

Sperm

Human egg/ovum

• Has a relatively central nucleus

What is the normal pH of urine?

4.5 to 8.0, with an average pH of about 6.5

Albuminuria

Presence of albumin in the urine. May be caused by damage to the kidneys, such as glomerulonephritis

Proteinuria

Presence of excess protein in the urine

Ketonuria

Presence of high levels of ketone bodies (acetone, acetoacetate) in the urine.

How does ketosis affect urine pH?

Ketosis lowers urine pH, through the excretion of excess ketone bodies which are acidic byproducts of fat metabolism

Glycosuria

Presence of excessive glucose in the urine. Indicates diabetes mellitus

Type 1 Diabetes mellitus

A condition where the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas are destroyed

Effects of Type 1 Diabetes mellitus on urine composition

Leads to glycosuria, ketonuria, and lower urine pH (more acidic) due to ketoacidosis

Effects of Type 1 Diabetes mellitus on urine production, thirst, and hunger

Leads to polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia

Type 2 Diabetes mellitus

A condition where the body’s cells are resistant to insulin. Leads to glycosuria, but pH remains normal

Polyuria

Excess urine production, with a low solute concentration. Indicates diabetes insipidus

Diabetes inspidus

Improper water balance regulation, leading to polydipsia and polyuria. Leads to large volmes of diluted urine

What type of diet often leads to presence of ketones in urine?

Keto diets, or low carb diets. often lead to ketones in the urine because the body has to create ketone bodies from fat through ketosis

Ketone body

Product of fat → ketone body metabolism, produced when the body lacks glucose. Alternative fuel source

Negative and positive colors for Benedict’s reagent (detects GLUCOSE)

• Negative → BLUE

• Positive: → GREEN (low), ORANGE (high conc.)

Negative and positive colors for Biuret reagent (detects PROTEIN)

• Negative → BLUE

• Positive: → PINK (for peptides), DARK PURPLE (for protein)

Negative and positive colors for Ferric chloride (detects acetoacetic acid ketone)

• Negative → YELLOW

• Positive: → LIGHT BROWN to BLACK

Out of glucose, protein, and ketones (acetoacetic acid), which should go in the hot water bath?

ONLY glucose should go in the water bath, for 5 minutes

Immunoprecipitate

• Insoluble solid that forms when soluble antigens and antibodies link together

• White line on agar

Components of petri dish immunoprecipitate experiment

• Central well with antigen (rubella)

• 1 positive control well (anti-rubella serum)

• 1 negative control well (normal serum)

• X number of patient wells

Agglutination

Clumping of particles such as bacteria or RBC’S, caused by antibodies cross-linking antigens on the surfaces of these particles

What causes agglutination in blood?

When antibodies and antigens of the same type are present in the blood at the same time, leading to clumping

Under normal conditions, do people with Rh^- blood have anti-Rh antibodies present in their plasma?

No, they typically do not have anti-Rh antibodies in their plasma

When can a person with Rh^- blood exhibit anti-Rh antibodies in their plasma?

When Rh^- blood comes into contact with Rh⁺ blood. E.g. during labor, the fetus’ Rh⁺ blood mixes with the mother’s Rh^- blood

What in the blood determines blood type?

The antigens on the surface of red blood cells determines blood type. E.g. A antigen = type A blood

In a petri dish, what is the interaction between an antibody and antigen called?

It is called an immunoprecipitate, and creates a white line on the agar

How strongly do inorganic electrolytes conduct electricity?

They conduct electricity very strongly, because they typically dissociate completely into ions which act as mobile charge carriers

How strongly do organic electrolytes conduct electricity?

They weakly conduct electricity, because they have covalent bonds which only weakly dissociate into ions; leaving few mobile charge carriers

Electrolyte

A substance that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water, allowing the solution to conduct electricity. Typically ionic compounds

What type of bonds do electrolytes typically have?

They typically have ionic bonds

What type of bonds do nonelectrolytes typically have?

They typically have covalent bonds

Nonelectrolyte

A substance that dissolves in water without dissociating into ions, making a solution that does not conduct electricity. Typically covalent compounds

How does dissociation indicate the strength of an acid/base?

Strong acids/bases almost completely dissociate, while weak acids/bases only partially dissociate

Electrolysis (in copper wire/solution experiment)

The formation of bubbles in a conducting solution, where the solution conducts electricity

If “bubbles” DO form when the copper wire enters the solution, what is in the solution?

If bubbles DO form, the solution contains electrolytes with dissociated ions. E.g. NaCl, KOH

If “bubbles” DO NOT form when the copper wire enters the solution, what is in the solution?

If bubbles do not form, the solution contains nonelectrolytes. E.g. acetone, fructose, alcohol

Is water an electrolyte?

No. Water is a non-electrolyte

What structures does a female fetal pig have that a male fetal pig does not?

They have ovaries, uterine horns, genital papilla (external) and a vagina

How does urethral length compare in male vs female fetal pigs?

Male fetal pigs have much longer urethras compared to females

Onion cell in interphase

• Most common cell state

• Round, homogenous nucleus with loosely packed chromatin

Onion cell in prophase

• Chromosomes are visible

• Nuclear envelope disintegrates

Onion cell in metaphase

• Chromosomes align at the center of the cell

Onion cell in anaphase

• Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell

• Forms two separate sets of homologous chromosomes

Onion cell in telophase

• Chromosomes unwind to eventually form two bundles of chromatin

• Nuclear envelope reforms

Chromatin

Loosely packed DNA and proteins. Looks like noodles

Chromosomes

Condensed and tightly-packed chromatin

Chromatid

One of two identical halves of a replicated chromosome

Down syndrome

Syndrome caused by an additional chromosome 21. Causes mental delay. Chromosome notation: 47, XX, +21 or 47, XY, +21

Turner syndrome

Absence of one X chromosome. Causes lack of secondary sex characteristic development. Chromosome notation: 45, X

Klinefelter’s syndrome

Extra X chromosome (trisomy) in males. Causes long limbs and sterility. Chromosome notation: 47, XXY

Liver hepatic portal vein branch (portal triad)

• Largest of all three vessels

• Often filled with red blood cells

Liver hepatic artery branch (portal triad)

• Smallest of all three vessels

• Has a thick tunica intima

Liver bile duct (portal triad)

• Surrounded by a thick layer of cells

Total magnification formula

Objective Lens Magnification x Ocular Lens Magnification

Actual size formula

Number of small divisions observed x Size of smallest division (at objective used)

• Ex. 62 divisions x 10μm/division = 620μm

Drawing magnification formula

Measured size of drawing (in μm) ÷ Actual size (in μm)

• Ex. 94,000μm/620μm = 152x

Acrocentric

Chromosome with a centromere located close to one end

Submetacentric

Chromosome with a slightly higher centromere position

Metacentric

Chromosome with a centrally located centromere