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Ptolemy
An ancient Greek astronomer who proposed the geocentric model, where Earth is the center of the universe.
Natural Philosophy
Early study of nature and the physical universe, precursor to modern science.
Geocentric Model
The model that places Earth at the center of the universe.
Heliocentric Theory
The model that places the Sun, not the Earth, at the center of the solar system.
Tycho Brahe
An astronomer who made detailed observations of the stars and planets, but believed in a geocentric system.
Johannes Kepler
Developed three laws of planetary motion, showing that planets orbit the Sun in ellipses.
Galileo Galilei
Used a telescope to support the heliocentric theory; discovered moons of Jupiter, phases of Venus.
Isaac Newton
Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, unifying previous scientific discoveries.
Empiricism
The theory that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience.
Deductive Reasoning
Logical process in which a conclusion is drawn from a set of premises.
Galen's Ideas
Ancient theories on human anatomy and medicine, based on animal dissection.
Andreas Vesalius
Conducted human dissections, challenging Galen's theories, and published On the Fabric of the Human Body.
William Harvey
Discovered the circulation of blood, demonstrating how blood is pumped by the heart.
Enlightenment
An intellectual movement emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition.
Deism
Belief in a rational God who created the universe but does not intervene in its operation.
Rationalism
Belief in reason and logic as the primary source of knowledge.
Public Sphere
Spaces like salons and coffeehouses where people discussed Enlightenment ideas.
Salons
Social gatherings where intellectuals discussed ideas, often hosted by women.
Mary Wollstonecraft
Early advocate for women's rights; wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
Frederick II (the Great)
Prussian king who implemented Enlightenment reforms while maintaining absolute power.
Catherine the Great
Russian empress who embraced Enlightenment ideas but faced challenges in implementing reforms.
Hodges
The Jewish Enlightenment movement encouraging integration of Jews into European society.
Pogroms
Violent attacks against Jewish communities, often condoned or ignored by local authorities.
Nuclear Family
A family unit consisting of parents and their children.
Consumer Revolution
A marked increase in the consumption and variety of goods available, driven by rising incomes.
John Wesley
Founder of Methodism, a movement that emphasized personal piety and social reform.
Methodists
Followers of John Wesley's movement, emphasizing personal religious experience and social justice.
Edward Jenner
Pioneer of vaccination, his work laid the foundation for the eventual eradication of smallpox.
