The Global War, 1955- 1960​

Summary Notes

What triggered the unrest in Poland in 1956?

Economic hardship, food shortages, and opposition to Soviet control.

Who became the new Polish leader after the crisis?

Władysław Gomułka.

Why did Khrushchev allow Gomułka to remain in power?

Gomułka agreed to stay within the Warsaw Pact and maintain loyalty to the USSR.

What was the significance of the Polish crisis?

It showed Khrushchev was prepared to compromise, suggesting some flexibility in Eastern Europe.

What caused the Hungarian Uprising of 1956?

Anti-Soviet sentiment, desire for political reforms, and inspired confidence after events in Poland.

Who led the Hungarian reform movement?

Imre Nagy.

What radical reforms did Nagy propose?

With a full military invasion in November 1956, crushing the uprising.

What was the significance of the Hungarian Uprising?

It proved limits to Khrushchev’s reforms—Soviet control of Eastern Europe would be maintained by force if needed.

What was Khrushchev’s policy of ‘peaceful coexistence’?

A strategy to ease tensions with the West while continuing competition with capitalism.

Why did Khrushchev adopt this policy?

Economic pressure, desire to reduce military spending, and belief that socialism would win without war.

Which events supported the idea of peaceful coexistence?

• The Austrian State Treaty (1955)

• Geneva Summit (1955)

improved cultural and diplomatic relations.

Which events undermined peaceful coexistence?

• Hungarian Uprising (1956)

• U-2 spy plane incident (1960)

• tensions over Berlin

Overall, how successful was peaceful coexistence?

Mixed—some reduction in tensions but frequent crises showed underlying rivalry persisted.

What was Austria’s status after WWII?

Divided into zones controlled by the USA, USSR, UK, and France (similar to Germany).

What did the Austrian State Treaty achieve?

Restored a unified, independent Austria and declared permanent neutrality.

Why was the treaty significant?

It showed cooperation between superpowers was still possible and was seen as a success for peaceful coexistence.

How did the Austrian settlement differ from Germany’s?

Austria was neutral and unified; Germany remained divided.

What replaced Stalin’s hostile foreign policy after 1953?

A more conciliatory approach—“peaceful coexistence”—championed by Khrushchev.

What was the significance of Khrushchev’s 1956 ‘Secret Speech’?

It criticised Stalin’s terror and encouraged reformist expectations across Eastern Europe.

What role did summits play in Khrushchev’s diplomacy?

They promoted dialogue (Geneva 1955, Camp David 1959), though often without major agreements.

What events worsened relations by 1960?

The U-2 crisis, repeated Berlin tensions, and Soviet fears about West German rearmament.

What technological development increased competition during this period?

The Space Race—USSR launched Sputnik in 1957.

What was the overall impact of Khrushchev’s leadership on Cold War relations?

He brought some thaw and diplomacy but also triggered crises that intensified tension.

What did the Polish and Hungarian risings reveal?

The instability of Soviet control and the limits of de-Stalinisation.

How did peaceful coexistence shape the late 1950s?

Encouraged dialogue but could not prevent ideological rivalry and major confrontations.

Why was the late 1950s an unstable period in the Cold War?

Competing reforms, nuclear rivalry, crises in Europe, and superpower distrust.

What was the state of the arms race by the mid-1950s?

Both the USA and USSR possessed thermonuclear (H-bomb) weapons and were expanding delivery systems.

What was the “missile gap”?

The (incorrect) belief in the late 1950s that the USSR had more ICBMs than the USA.

What new weapons intensified the arms race during this period?

Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and improved strategic bombers.

Why did nuclear stockpiles grow rapidly after 1955?

Doctrine of “massive retaliation,” superpower rivalry, and technological competition.

What was the impact of mutually assured destruction (MAD)?

Discouraged direct war but increased Cold War tension through constant threat of nuclear annihilation.

What was Sputnik and when was it launched?

The first artificial satellite, launched by the USSR in October 1957.

Why was Sputnik significant?

It demonstrated Soviet missile capability and caused shock and fear in the USA.

How did the USA respond to Sputnik?

Creation of NASA (1958), increased STEM funding, and accelerated missile development.

What Soviet achievements followed Sputnik?

Sputnik II (1957, with Laika), the first man in space (Yuri Gagarin, 1961).

What was the US response in the early 1960s?

Project Mercury, and Kennedy’s 1961 commitment to land a man on the Moon by the end of the decade.

How did the Space Race intensify Cold War rivalry?

It became a proxy for technological superiority, ideological competition, and military capability.

What triggered Khrushchev’s 1958 Berlin Ultimatum?

Concern over the “brain drain” from East to West Berlin and West Germany’s growing strength.

What did Khrushchev demand in 1958?

That Berlin become a demilitarised “free city” and Western forces withdraw within six months.

Why was Berlin important to the USA?

Symbol of Western commitment; retreat would damage credibility of containment.

What happened at the 1961 Vienna Summit?

Khrushchev renewed the ultimatum; Kennedy refused to back down.

What caused the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961?

Massive East German emigration and Khrushchev’s need for a stable solution without war.

What was the impact of the Berlin Wall?

Stopped the brain drain, stabilised the German situation, but symbolised division and Cold War hostility.

What was the Checkpoint Charlie standoff (1961)?

A brief US–Soviet tank confrontation at the Berlin border; resolved peacefully.

What characterised Cold War rivalry from 1955–63?

Intense technological, military, and ideological competition between the superpowers.

How did the arms race change in this period?

Shift from bombs to missiles and space-based technology, escalating nuclear threat.

What made Berlin a flashpoint?

Its divided status, propaganda value, and symbolism of superpower resolve.

How did these rivalries affect global stability?

Created constant risk of escalation but also contributed to deterrence and avoidance of full-scale war.

Who was Ho Chi Minh?

Leader of North Vietnam and the Communist Viet Minh, aiming to unify Vietnam under communist rule.

What was North Vietnam’s ideology and support base?

Communist; supported by peasants, the USSR, and China.

How did Ho Chi Minh view the US?

As a colonial/imperialist power, initially seeking US support but turned to USSR/China after US backed France.

What was the Viet Minh’s strategy?

Guerrilla warfare, political organisation, and reliance on peasant support.

Who was Ngo Dinh Diem?

US-backed leader of South Vietnam (1955–63), anti-communist and nationalist.

Why did the US support Diem?

To contain communism and implement the Domino Theory in Southeast Asia.

What were Diem’s weaknesses?

Corruption, nepotism, suppression of opposition, and alienation of Buddhists.

How did Diem’s policies affect his popularity?

Repressive and unpopular, causing internal unrest and weakening the South against the North.

When and why was the National Liberation Front formed?

1960; to unite communist and nationalist forces against Diem in South Vietnam.

What were the NLF’s goals?

Overthrow Diem, reunify Vietnam under communist rule.

What was the NLF’s strategy?

Guerrilla warfare, propaganda, and political mobilisation in rural areas.

How did Kennedy view Vietnam?

As a key part of the Cold War; believed in containment and preventing communist expansion.

What strategies did Kennedy implement?

Increased US military and economic aid, sent advisors, and supported counter-insurgency operations.

How many US military advisors were sent by 1963?

Around 16,000, mostly training South Vietnamese forces.

What was the Strategic Hamlet Program?

A US–Diem initiative to isolate rural populations from Viet Cong influence by relocating them into fortified villages.

Why did it fail?

Forced relocation angered peasants, inadequate protection, and poor implementation.

What was the impact of its failure?

Strengthened Viet Cong support and undermined Diem’s legitimacy.

What triggered the Buddhist Crisis?

Diem’s Catholic bias and restrictions on Buddhist practices, including banning flag displays.

How did the crisis escalate?

Buddhist protests, self-immolations (e.g., Thich Quang Duc), and international condemnation.

What was the impact on Diem’s government?

Exposed weakness, increased US concern, and contributed to loss of domestic and international support.

When did Diem die and how?

November 1963; overthrown and assassinated in a coup supported tacitly by the US.

Why did the US support the coup?

Belief that Diem’s removal would stabilise South Vietnam and improve the fight against the communists.

What was the immediate impact of Diem’s assassination?

Political instability in South Vietnam and ongoing insurgency; did not resolve underlying conflict.

What characterised Cold War conflict in Vietnam, 1955–63?

Ideological struggle, guerrilla warfare, US intervention, and internal political instability.

How did US involvement escalate during this period?

From economic/military aid to direct advisor presence and support for coups.

What factors weakened South Vietnam?

Corruption, unpopular policies, Buddhist unrest, and ineffective counter-insurgency measures.

What lessons did this period show about Cold War interventions?

Local legitimacy and popular support were crucial; military aid alone could not secure victory.

Why was the US concerned about Cuba?

Cuba was only 90 miles from Florida and had become a communist state under Fidel Castro (1959).

What actions by Castro heightened US fears?

Nationalisation of US-owned businesses, alignment with the USSR, and suppression of opposition.

What was the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961)?

A failed CIA-backed attempt by Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro; it embarrassed the US.

How did the USSR respond to US hostility?

Khrushchev secretly installed nuclear missiles in Cuba to deter US invasion and boost Soviet strategic power.

Why did Khrushchev place missiles in Cuba?

To balance US missile advantage in Turkey and Italy, defend Cuba, and strengthen Soviet prestige

How did the US discover Soviet missiles in Cuba?

U-2 spy plane photographs on October 14, 1962.

What options did Kennedy consider?

Air strikes, full invasion, or a naval blockade (quarantine).

What decision did Kennedy make?

Implemented a naval blockade around Cuba and demanded missile removal.

How did the crisis unfold?

• Tense negotiations between Kennedy and Khrushchev

• Soviet ships approached the blockade but did not run it

• Secret deal: USSR would remove missiles from Cuba; US would secretly remove missiles from Turkey

What role did diplomacy play?

Crucial—direct communication (ultimately via letters) avoided nuclear war.

How close did the world come to nuclear war?

Extremely close; considered the closest moment of the Cold War to full-scale nuclear conflict.

What were the immediate outcomes?

Removal of missiles from Cuba, US pledge not to invade Cuba, and secret removal of US missiles from Turkey.

What were the long-term consequences for superpower relations?

• Establishment of the “Hotline” between Washington and Moscow

• Partial thaw in Cold War tensions

• Strengthened the concept of deterrence and brinkmanship

What impact did the crisis have on Kennedy and Khrushchev?

Kennedy’s reputation strengthened in the West; Khrushchev faced criticism at home for perceived concessions.

What caused the Cuban Missile Crisis?

US hostility toward Castro, Cuban alignment with the USSR, and Soviet desire to deploy missiles near the US.

Why was the crisis a turning point in the Cold War?

It highlighted nuclear danger, showed the value of diplomacy, and led to mechanisms to prevent direct superpower conflict.

How did it affect future US–Soviet relations?

Initiated arms control talks (Partial Test Ban Treaty, 1963) and more cautious Cold War engagement.

What lessons did the crisis show about nuclear brinkmanship?

Miscalculation could have global consequences; communication and compromise were essential.