AP Psychology Unit 1 Vocabulary

Myres' Psychology for AP Unit 1 Vocab

Nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

Genetic predisposition

an increased likelihood of developing a disease or behavior due to inherited genes.

Evolutionary perspective

the theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors using principles of natural selection

Eugenics

the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics

Twin studies

a research design in which hereditary influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.

Central nervous system

the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Glial cell

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Neurons

the basic building block of the nervous system

Reflex arc

a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement

Sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Neural transmission

electrochemical communication within and between neurons and the final destination

All-or-nothing principle

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Depolarization

the process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

Refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Firing threshold

the point at which a sufficient change in electrical potential has occurred to generate a nerve impulse

Multiple sclerosis

a chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech

Myasthenia gravis

a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles

Excitatory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that excite the next neuron into firing

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that inhibit the next neuron from firing

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning, emotion, and brain’s pleasure and reward system.

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood

Norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter of the brain that plays an essential role in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions

Glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, oplatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Substance P

a neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Hormones

chemical messengers, mostly manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

Adrenaline

a hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress

Leptin

a hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

Ghrelin

a hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Melatonin

a hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Oxytocin

a hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

Agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits a response

Reuptake inhibitors

drugs that interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse so that a greater amount remains in the synapse

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain; responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing and heartbeat

Reticular activating system

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal

Reward center

a dopamine-rich pathway in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Hemispheres

the right and left halves of the brain, some brain functions seem to be centered in one or the other

Limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brain stem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

Pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Amygdala

a limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments (includes the prefrontal cortex, motor cortex)

Temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position (includes the somatosensory cortex, association areas)

Split brain research

surgical cutting of the corpus callosum to study the effects of disconnecting the right and left brain hemispheres - specifically, the independent functioning of the two hemispheres

Right hemisphere specialization

half of the brain that controls the left side of the body, involved in spatial recognition, self-awareness, emotional cognitive processing, creativity, artistic and musical skills, recognizing faces

Left hemisphere specialization

half of the brain that controls the right side of the body, involved in logical and analytic thought, primarily half that control language function in most people

Broca's area

a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech

if damaged, it impaires speaking

Wernicke's area

a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression

if damaged, it impaires understanding

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage

Contralateral organization

opposite-side organization, in which stimulation of neurons on one side of the body or sensory organ is represented by the activity of neurons in the opposite side of the brain

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

EEG

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

Case studies

a research method that involves the intensive examination of unusual people or organizations

Lesioning

removal or destruction of part of the brain

Psychoactive drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain

Stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, cocaine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as marijuana and LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Opioids

any drug or agent with actions similar to morphine (such as heroin).

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Addiction/dependence

The compulsive use of alcohol or other drugs regardless of the consequences

Withdrawal symptoms

unpleasant physical reactions, combined with intense drug cravings, that occur when a person abstains from a drug on which he or she is physically dependent.

Consciousness

subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment (varying levels include sleep/wakefulness)

Circadian Rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

NREM stage 1

The transition between wakefulness and sleep

NREM stage 2

Characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes on an EEG

NREM stage 3

Also known as slow wave sleep or deep sleep this stage is thought to be important for restfulness

REM

The stage when you dream with relaxed muscles and rapid eye movement

Hypnogogic sensations

occurs between being awake and asleep; Experienced qualities vary, and include fear, awareness of a "presence," a falling sensation or a feeling of tripping (as myoclonic jerks are interpreted by the brain)

REM (paradoxical) sleep

sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movement; it is during this stage that most vivid dreaming occurs, increases throughout the night

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Activation-synthesis theory (dreams)

suggests dreams occur because the cortex takes the haphazard activity that occurs during REM sleep plus whatever stimuli strike the sense organs and does its best to make sense of this activity

Consolidation theory (dreams)

suggests that dreams are a biological process that helps the brain consolidate memories during sleep.

Reasons why we sleep

to protect, to restore and repair, to remember, to grow

Sleep disorders

serious and consistent sleep disturbances that interfere with daytime functioning and cause subjective distress

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep

REM sleep behavior disorder

a neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams