B1.1 Carbohydrates and lipids Notes

Covalent Bonding

Chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

Hydroxyl Group

A functional group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom, making molecules polar.

Carboxyl Group

A functional group with a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen and single-bonded to a hydroxyl group, making substances acidic.

Amino Group

A functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms, essential for amino acids.

Peptide Bond

Covalent bond formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Phosphodiester Bond

Covalent bond that links nucleotides in nucleic acids via the phosphate group.

Glycosidic Bond

Covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides during condensation reactions.

Hydrolysis

Chemical reaction where water is used to break down a compound into smaller units.

Condensation Reaction

A chemical reaction where two molecules combine, releasing water and forming covalent bonds.

Monosaccharides

The simplest forms of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar units.

Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates formed by linking multiple monosaccharides through glycosidic bonds.

Amino Acids

Building blocks of proteins, containing an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable R group.

Functional Groups

Specific clusters of atoms within molecules that determine molecular properties and reactivity.

Saturated Fatty Acids

Fatty acids containing no double bonds, making them solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Fatty acids containing one or more double bonds, making them liquid at room temperature.

Triglycerides

Fat molecules composed of three fatty acids bonded to glycerol, used for energy storage.

Phospholipids

Molecules containing hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails, essential for forming cell membranes.

Glycoproteins

Proteins with carbohydrate chains attached, involved in cell recognition and signaling.

Nucleic Acids

Biomolecules (DNA and RNA) that store and transmit genetic information.

Cellulose

A polysaccharide composed of beta-glucose units, forming structural support in plant cell walls.

Glycogen

A highly branched polysaccharide used by animals for energy storage.

Starch

A storage form of glucose in plants, composed of amylose and amylopectin.

Hydrophobicity

A property of molecules that repel water, inhibiting their solubility in aqueous environments.

Hydrophilicity

A property of molecules that attract water, increasing their solubility in aqueous solutions.

Amphipathic Molecules

Molecules containing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, such as phospholipids.

Energy Density

The amount of energy stored in a given weight of a substance, higher in lipids than carbohydrates.

Cell Membranes

Biological barriers formed by phospholipid bilayers that regulate substance transport.

Biological Macromolecules

Large complex molecules, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Condensation Synthesis

The process of forming macromolecules by removing water and creating covalent bonds.

Hydration

The process of adding water to a substance without breaking it down, differing from hydrolysis.

Glycosidic Bond Formation

The reaction between two monosaccharides where water is released, forming a disaccharide.

Hydrocarbon Chains

Long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms found in lipids, contributing to their hydrophobicity.

Cell Recognition

The process by which cells identify and interact with other cells through glycoproteins.

Selective Permeability

The property of cell membranes that allows certain substances to pass while restricting others.

Biomolecule Recycling

The process by which cells break down and reuse macromolecules through hydrolysis.

Energy Mobilization

The rapid release of stored energy from macromolecules, such as glycogen during exercise.

Cell Wall Structure

The arrangement of cellulose fibers, contributing to the strength and rigidity of plant cells.

Anthocyanins

Water-soluble pigments found in many plants that provide color and protection.

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures that define protein shape and function.

X-ray Crystallography

A technique used to determine the 3D structure of molecules by scattering X-rays.

Absorption Spectrum

The range of wavelengths absorbed by a particular substance, important in photosynthesis.

Cellular Respiration

The process of converting glucose into energy (ATP) in the presence of oxygen.

Metabolic Pathways

Series of biochemical reactions that convert substrates into products in living organisms.

Environmental Factors

External conditions, such as temperature and pH, that influence biochemical reactions.

Enzyme Catalysis

The acceleration of a chemical reaction by a catalyst, typically an enzyme.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

A nucleotide that serves as the primary energy carrier in living cells.

Photosynthesis

The process by which plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen.