AP Lang - Unit 1 (Rhetoric and the Elements of Style)

What is rhetoric?

- Language as a means of persuasion
- The strategies an author uses to impact an audience and persuade them of a specific idea
- The author uses X, which accomplishes Y, and persuades the audience of Z

Rhetorical Strategies

Describe how an author uses language to construct a text

Diction

- A writer's choice of words, phrases, sentence structures, and figurative language, which combine to help create meaning
- You may consider what style and/or tone an author's use of diction develops

Denotation and Connotation

- The literal meaning of a word, the dictionary definition
- Denotation is almost always used in contrast with connotation. Authors will often define a word to clarify its meaning, which suggests that the connotations of the term do not match how the author wants the audience to view that term. (Context and sometimes author's intent determines which connotations are appropriate for a word)

Denotation and Connotation Analysis Example

By explicitly defining feminism as "the belief that men and women should have equal rights and opportunities," Watson juxtaposes the denotation of feminism with the connotations with which it is associated. Watson directly confronts the misconceptions regarding feminism to quell any opposition regarding such misconceptions, and she appeals to a credible source — the dictionary — to support her claims and establish her own authority over the matter.

Syntax

- The structure of sentences and/or phrases

Consider the following:
- Sentence length
- Sentence Beginning (is there a pattern or a variety)
- Word order (are words set in a special way for a purpose or effect)
- Arrangement of ideas ( Are ideas set out in a special way for a discernable purpose or effect?)

Arrangement of Ideas (for analysis of syntax)

- Loose sentence: makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending. (The main point is "front-loaded".)
EX: We reached Edmonton/that morning/after a turbulent flight/and some exciting experiences.
- Periodic sentence = makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached.
EX: That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.

- Parallel structure = refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves the arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased.

Types of Sentences (for analysis of syntax)

- Natural Order Sentence = a sentence where the subject comes before the predicate (main verb).
EX: Oranges grow in California.

- Antithesis = a form of parallelism where the contrasting ideas are balanced.
EX: "...neither the one hurt her, nor the other helped her; just without partiality, mighty without contradiction, liberal without losing, wise without curiosity..."

- Inverted order sentence = a sentence where the predicate (main verb) comes before the subject.
EX: In California grow oranges.

The Four Basic Sentence Types (for analysis of syntax)

- Declarative = makes a statement.
EX: The king is sick.
- Imperative = gives a command.
EX: Bow to the king.
- Interrogative = asks a question. EX: What's the matter with the king?
- Exclamatory = makes an exclamation.
EX: The king is dead!

Imagery

- Descriptive language that provides vivid images that evoke the senses
EX: : Louv recounts his experience staring out of the car window as a child with vivid imagery, describing watching "telephone poles tick by," "birds on the wires," "cows and horses and coyotes," and "shaving-cream signs." Louv jots seemingly disconnected images in short snippets, mimicking a car whizzing past an ever-changing landscape. The sharp images appeal to the reader's sense of nostalgia as Louv allows them to witness their own youth "go by in the blink of an eye."

Figurative Language

Speech or writing that departs from literal meaning to achieve a special effect or meaning
(Includes simile, metaphor, hyperbole, personification, onomatopoeia, allusion, and more)

Understatement

- Figurative language that presents the facts in a way that makes them appear much less significant than they really are
- Almost always used for comic effect

EX: "After dinner, they came and took the men into custody. They were conducted to separate apartments, which were extremely cool and where they were never bothered by the sun."
- The understatement in this example (second sentence) implies that the poor men were dumped into horrifyingly gloomy, dank, and frigid jail cells.

Hyperbole

- An overstatement or exaggeration
- In many cases, used for comic effect

Similie

- A comparison between two unlike objects, in which the two parts are connected with a term such as like or as
EX: The birds are like black arrows flying across the sky.

Metaphor

A simile without a connecting term such as like or as.

EX: "The birds are black arrows flying across the sky."
- Birds are not arrows, but the commonalities (both are long and sleek, and they travel swiftly through the air—and both have feathers) allow us to easily grasp the image.

Extended Metaphor

Several comparisons similar in theme are being made
EX: Carr employs an extended metaphor to liken his brain to a machine, suggesting that something "has been tinkering" with his brain, "remapping" and "reprogramming" his "neural circuitry." By comparing his brain to a machine, Carr conveys his feeling that he is a slave to his computer and his sense of disconnectedness from his brain. Rather than being in harmony with his mind, he describes his brain as a separate entity. Carr's metaphor also highlights the increasing influence of technology in modern life — so much so that our brains themselves have become computers.

Symbolism

- A symbol is a concrete object that represents an abstract idea.

EX: "The Christian soldiers paused to remember the lamb."
- In this case, the lamb is a symbol.
- The lamb is a concrete object that represents an abstract idea.
- In this case, the lamb symbolizes the legacy of Jesus Christ.

Personification

- Inanimate objects or concepts are given the thoughts, feelings, or actions of a human
- Can enhance our emotional response because we usually attribute more emotional significance to other humans than to things or concepts

Paradox

- Contains two elements which cannot both be true at the same time. Its purpose is to arrest attention and provoke fresh thought
EX: Smith describes Montaigne's writing style as very frank and outspoken, asserting that "if you wish to preserve your secret, wrap it up in frankness." Smith's paradox, although outwardly nonsensical, forces the reader to pause and ruminate on the conflicting ideas, which naturally places emphasis on these ideas. Through his paradox, Smith suggests that an author's works often contain intimate personal revelations that seem obvious, yet are often overlooked by most readers.

Rhetorical Question

- A question presented by the author that is not meant to be answered.
- Attempt to prove something without actually presenting an argument; sometimes they're used as a form of irony
EX: Given how cheap the most fattening foods are, is it any wonder obesity is on the rise? (no irony)
EX: Aren't AP Exams great fun? (with irony)

Irony and Satire

- Irony: Words are used to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Used to make a point, add humor or emphasize something.
- Satire: A social or political criticism that relies heavily on irony, sarcasm, and often humor.

Style

- The general manner of expression used in a text
- Describes how the author uses language to get his or her point across

Types of Style

- Narrative
- Descriptive
- Expository (explains/informs)
- Scientific
- Argumentative
- Creative
- Emotive
- Pedantic (scholarly/academic)

Tone

- Describes the speaker's attitude toward the subject.
- Describes how the author seems to be feeling

Mood

Describes how the text makes the audience feel.

Types of Mood

- Cheerful
- Reflective
- Gloomy
- Humorous
- Melancholy (reflective sadness)
- Idyllic
- Whimsical
- Romantic
- Mysterious
- Ominous
- Calm
- Lighthearted
- Hopeful
- Angry
- Fearful
- Tense
- Lonely

Alliteration

The repetition of the same sound at the beginning of successive words
EX: Reagan acknowledges that the veterans of the Vietnam War were prepared to "face the fire at freedom's front." Through his use of alliteration, Reagan emphasizes the soldiers' willingness to sacrifice themselves for freedom, focusing the audience's attention on the value of the veterans' deeds.

Allusion

A reference, explicit or implicit, to something in previous literature or history

Anaphora

Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines
EX: "Give me liberty or give me death." (use of "give me" multiple times)

Anecdote

A usually short narrative of an interesting, amusing, or biographical incident

Epistrophe

- Ending a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words
EX: "I'm tired of this job. I'm over this job. I'm done with this job!"

Juxtaposition

- Placing two or more things side by side for comparison or contrast
EX: The author juxtaposes the average day of a typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary

Classical Appeals

Logos, Ethos, Pathos

Logos

- An appeal to reason and logic
- Requires objective evidence, hard facts, statistics, or logical strategies such as cause and effect to back up a claim.

Ethos

An appeal to the speaker's credibility—whether they are to be believed on the basis of their character and expertise.

Pathos

An appeal to the emotions, values, or desires of the audience.