AP Psychology Unit 2 Vocab

Cultural norms

Unwritten rules for behavior in a group.

Confirmation bias

Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs.

Hindsight bias

Believing you predicted an outcome after it happens.

Overconfidence

Being too certain about one's judgments.

Experimental

Research method manipulating variables to find cause and effect.

Random assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance alone.

Case Study

In-depth analysis of a single individual or group.

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables.

Meta-analysis

Statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the outcome.

Falsifiable

Capable of being proven incorrect by evidence.

Operational definitions

Clear description of how a variable is measured.

Independent variable

The factor that is manipulated or changed.

Dependent variable

The outcome that is measured.

Confounding variables

External factors that could affect the results.

Sample

A subset of a population selected for study.

Population

The entire group that is of interest to researchers.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the population.

Random sampling

Selecting participants where everyone has an equal chance.

Convenience sampling

Selecting participants based on easy availability.

Sampling bias

Flaw in sampling that makes the sample unrepresentative.

Generalizability

Extent to which findings can be applied to a larger population.

Experimental group

The group that receives the treatment.

Control group

The group that does not receive the treatment.

Placebo

A harmless, inactive substance or procedure.

Single-blind

Participants don't know which group they are in.

Double-blind

Both participants and researchers don't know group assignments.

Social desirability bias

Tendency to answer questions in a socially acceptable way.

Qualitative

Non-numerical data, often descriptive (e.g., interviews).

Quantitative

Numerical data that can be measured (e.g., scales, scores).

Peer review

Evaluation of research by experts in the same field.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify its results.

Directionality problem

Unclear which variable causes the other in a correlation.

Survey technique

Using questionnaires or interviews to collect data.

Institutional review

Ethical review of research involving human participants.

Confidentiality

Protecting the private information of participants.

Mean

The mathematical average of a set of numbers.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution of data.

Standard deviation

A measure of how spread out the data points are.

Scatterplot

A graph showing the relationship between two variables.

Third variable problem

An unseen factor might cause the correlation.

Self-report bias

Inaccuracies in data because it comes from the subject themselves.

Informed consent

Participants agreeing to join after knowing the risks.

Informed assent

Agreement to participate from someone who cannot legally consent.

Deception

Misleading participants about the true purpose of the study.

Research confederates

People who work for the researcher and pretend to be participants.

Median

The middle score in a set of ordered data.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Variation

How much the data differs or is spread out.

Skewness

The degree of asymmetry in a distribution.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores that fall below a specific score.

Regression toward mean

The tendency for extreme scores to move closer to the average over time.

Correlational coefficient

A number between -1 and +1 showing the strength and direction of a relationship.

Effect size

A measure of the strength of a relationship or difference.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Bimodal distribution

A distribution with two most frequent scores (two peaks).

Statistical significance

A result that is unlikely to have occurred by chance.

Protection from harm

Ethical obligation to minimize risk to participants.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of the study to participants after it concludes.