Social Psychology 311 Units 1-5

Social Psychology 311 at NC State University with Adam Meade

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to explain behavior in terms of personality traits while underestimating social influences.

Social Psychology

The study of how behavior is influenced by real or imagined people.

Folk Wisdom

Common sense knowledge that often disagrees and lacks a clear method for determining correctness.

Empiricism

The foundation of social psychology, emphasizing observation and experimentation.

Level of Analysis

Focus on the individual within a social context, contrasting with sociology's focus on groups.

Strong Situations

Environments that strongly influence behavior, such as funerals.

Correlational Method

A research technique assessing the relationship between two or more variables.

Experimental Method

A research design that randomly assigns participants to conditions to determine causality.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe one could have predicted an outcome after knowing it occurred.

Bystander Effect

A phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in emergencies when others are present.

Observational Method

A research technique involving systematic observation and recording of behavior.

Interjudge (or Interrater) Reliability

The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data. This ensures that the data is of good quality.

Archival Analysis

A research method examining existing documents to gather data.

Surveys

Research involving questions posed to a representative sample to assess attitudes or behaviors.

Correlation

A statistical measure indicating the relationship between two variables, which does not imply causation.

Internal Validity

The degree to which an experiment accurately establishes a causal relationship.

External Validity

The extent to which study results can be generalized to other situations and populations.

Replication Crisis

The challenge of replicating psychological studies, raising concerns about the reliability of findings.

Field Experiments

Research conducted in real-life settings to enhance external validity.

Social Cognition

The study of how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions. 

Schemas

Mental structures that organize knowledge and influence perception and memory.

Priming

The process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When expectations about a person lead to behaviors that confirm those expectations.

Judgmental Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make quick judgments and decisions. Ex: “you get what you pay for”

Availability Heuristic

Basing judgments on how easily examples come to mind. Study: Name 6 vs 12 assertive behaviors, How assertive are you?

Self-Perception Theory

The theory that people infer their feelings and attitudes by observing their behavior.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in an activity for its inherent enjoyment rather than for external rewards.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in an activity for external reasons, such as rewards or pressures.

Overjustification Effect

The tendency to underestimate intrinsic motivation when extrinsic rewards are present.

Social Comparison Theory

The idea that we define ourselves by comparing our abilities and attitudes to others.

Weak Situations

Environment has a weak influence on behavior Ex: party

Scientific Methods

Correlational Method, Experimental Method, Meta-Analysis

Methodology

The ability to describe, explain, and predict behaviors

Latane and Darley

Bystander Effect, originally called Diffusion of Responsibility

Limits of Observation

1. Behaviors occur in private or rarely

2. In archival analysis- the writers may not have included everything that is needed

3. Internal traits, and mental states are unable to be observed

Advantages of Surveys

1. Researchers can judge the relationship between variables that are difficult to observe

2. Ability to sample representative segments of the population

Disadvantage of Surveys

People may be dishonest, either intentionally or unintentionally

Meta-Analysis

used to summarize previous work

Correlational Method

the technique whereby the relationship between two or more variables is systematically measured. (0.3 is a pretty good correlation)

Limits of the Correlational Method

1. correlation does not equal causation

2. only two variables can be correlated

The Experimental Method

the only way to determine causality, needs random assignment, independent and dependent variables

Deterministic Causation

If A, then always B

Probabilistic Causation

If A, then more likely B

Limitation of Experiments

the situation can be artificial and distant from real life. does this finding really matter?

Mundane Realism

The extent to which an experiment is similar to real life situations

Psychological Realism

the extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to everyday life.

Reasons Why Replications are Unsuccessful

1. small effect size

2. sampling error

3. selectivity in publication

The File Drawer Problem

Journals don’t want to see results with a null outcome, so psychologists will store away studies that don’t show anything revolutionary

Field Experiment

experiment conducted in a real life setting. high external validity

Need for Cognition

an individual difference variable that tries to get at differences in personality related to how “painful” deliberate thought is

Low Effort Thinking

You can tell the difference between a college classroom and a party without having to think about it

Types of Schemas

1. Person

2. Social

3. Self

4. Event

Function of Schemas

Schemas reduce ambiguity

Accessibility of Schemas

the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of peoples minds are are therefore likely to be used

Behavioral Confirmation

acting in such a way as to make your belief true

Representative Heuristic

A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case. Example: you see someone reading poetry and assume they are a poet, even though there are more accountants than poets

Barnum Effect

when people believe that vague or general statements apply specifically to them

Anchoring and Adjusting Heuristic

A mental shortcut whereby people use a number or value as a starting point and then adjust insufficiently from this anchor. Ex: 50% off sales

Decoy Effect

the popcorn example at a movie theater

Counterfactual Reasoning

Mentally changing some aspect of the past in imagining what might have been. The easier it is to mentally undo an outcome, the stronger the emotional reaction to it. Ex: Silver Medalists

Implicit Personality Theory

a type of schemas people use to group various kinds of personality traits together

Consensus Information

information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does. (everyone skips this class, external)

Distinctiveness Information

information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli (she skips lots of classes, internal0

Consistency Information

information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances. (she skips this class often)

Correspondence Bias

the tendency to draw inferences about a person's unique dispositions from behaviors that can be entirely explained by the situations in which they occur

Perceptual Salience

the seeming importance of information that is the focus of their attention as a starting point.

Individualistic Cultures

Individualistic cultures prioritize personal autonomy and individual rights over group goals.

Collectivistic Culture

A cultural orientation that emphasizes the needs and goals of the group over the individual

The Actor/Observer Difference

We think other people ARE the way they ACT

Self Serving Attributions

Explanations for ones successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for ones failures that blame external, situational factors.

Defensive Attribution

Explanations for behavior that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality

Self Serving Bias

the tendency to perceive ourselves favorably. More credit when we succeed, less credit when we fail.

Unrealistic Optimism

Illusion of Invulnerability

False Consensus

We tend to overestimate the number of people who agree with us o a given issue

The Nature of Self

Self Concept, Self Awareness, Self Esteem, Social Self, Self Knowledge

Self Recognition

begins at about 18 months

Independent View of The Self

A way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people (Western Cultures)

Interdependent View of The Self

A way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people; recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others

Gender Differences in Defining The Self

Women have more relational interdependence, meaning that they focus more on their close relationships. Men have more collective interdependence, meaning that they focus on their larger groups.

Organizational Function of The Self

The self regulates behavior, choices, and future plans, much like a corporation’s chief executive officer.

Self Perception Theory

the theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs Ex: hold a pen in mouth while watching show

The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it (attribution)

Misattribution of Arousal

The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do. Residual arousal from one source can enhance the intensity of how the person interprets other feelings

Self Determination Theory

a theory that studies human motivation and personality, and how people's needs and tendencies influence their choices