Environmental Laws

Clean Water Act – Full name

Clean Water Act (regulates pollution in U.S. navigable waters).

Clean Water Act – What led to it?

Serious water pollution in U.S.; untreated sewage in rivers; Cuyahoga River fire (Ohio); public health concerns.

Clean Water Act – What does it do?

Regulates how much pollution can be released into U.S. waters; sets national standards states must follow; protects rivers, wetlands, and lakes; limits pollutant discharge; focuses on recreational waters.

Clean Water Act – Key issues addressed

Oil spills; chemical pollution; sewage treatment failures; industrial waste dumping; makes water safe for drinking, swimming, and fishing.

Clean Water Act – Enforcement

Permit system allowing certain dumping; National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System; technology-based limits; monitoring and penalties.

Clean Water Act – Year enacted

1972 (earlier version in 1965).

Clean Water Act – Major amendments

1977 clarified pollution limits and enforcement; 1987 increased funding for sewage treatment plants to reduce runoff pollution.

Clean Water Act – Controversies

Debates on federal power; wetlands regulation debates; definition of “waters of the U.S.”; business compliance costs.

Clean Water Act – Impacts

Cleaner rivers and lakes; reduced toxic pollution; improved public health; stronger environmental enforcement; successful recovery of Cuyahoga River (fish returned, recreation restored).

Safe Drinking Water Act – What does it deal with?

Drinking water and groundwater (unlike CWA which deals with navigable waters).

Safe Drinking Water Act – Events leading to it

Rising water pollution; industrial waste entering water supplies; agricultural runoff contaminating groundwater; disease outbreaks; limited federal regulations.

Safe Drinking Water Act – What does it do?

Sets national drinking water quality standards (EPA); limits harmful contaminants; requires regular testing; regulates public water systems; protects surface and groundwater; requires public reporting.

Safe Drinking Water Act – Year enacted

1974.

Safe Drinking Water Act – Major amendments

1986 strengthened contamination standards and required filtration/disinfection; 1996 focused on preventing contamination and annual public reports.

Safe Drinking Water Act – Controversies

Aging infrastructure; lead pipe replacement costs; compliance burdens small communities; unequal enforcement; Flint, Michigan water crisis.

Safe Drinking Water Act – Impacts

Improved water safety; reduced exposure to dangerous chemicals; standardized regulations; protected millions from waterborne disease; Flint seen as failure example.

National Energy Act – Why was it passed?

Address energy challenges and oil shortages; 1973 oil embargo; high energy prices worsened inflation; inefficient energy use; Carter promoted conservation and renewable energy; exposed U.S. vulnerability to fossil fuels.

National Energy Act – Five laws included

Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act; Energy Tax Act; National Energy Conservation Policy Act; Power Plant and Industrial Fuel Use Act; Natural Gas Policy Act.

National Energy Act – Issues & solutions

Heavy dependence on foreign oil (encouraged domestic production); inefficient consumption (promoted conservation and renewable energy); outdated policies.

National Energy Act – Amendments / later changes

1992 Energy Policy Act expanded efficiency programs; 2005 Energy Policy Act updated utility regulations.

National Energy Act – Controversies

Raised prices for consumers; oil companies opposed restrictions; utilities resisted buying from small producers; debate over federal intervention; limited immediate impact on energy independence.

National Energy Act – Impacts

Reduced foreign dependence (partially); encouraged conservation; changed utility industry; increased energy efficiency awareness; promoted early renewable energy growth.

National Energy Act – PURPA impact

Utilities required to buy power from small producers; included solar, wind, cogeneration; created financial incentives for independent energy companies.

CERCLA – Full name

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund).

CERCLA – Year enacted

1980.

CERCLA – Purpose

Deals with hazardous waste; prevents harm to people and environment; holds responsible parties liable.

CERCLA – Leading events

Toxic waste disposal since 1940s; Cuyahoga River fire; health risk concerns; first Earth Day (1970); Love Canal (1978); national attention to hazardous sites.

CERCLA – Issues addressed

Dumping in landfills/pits; contamination of soil and groundwater; human health risks; lack of emergency response process; responsibility for cleanup; improved transparency.

CERCLA – Major amendments

1986 Superfund Amendments increased funding, health protections, and created Emergency Planning & Community Right-to-Know; 2002 Brownfields Act gave liability relief and redevelopment.

CERCLA – Controversies

Companies liable for decades-old pollution; one party can pay entire cleanup; cleanups cost millions/billions; long legal disputes; small companies couldn’t afford cleanup; taxpayer funding increased.

CERCLA – Impacts

Strict, joint, retroactive liability; increased environmental litigation; cleanup of thousands of sites; reduced pollution; increased public awareness.

RCRA – Full name

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.

RCRA – Main purpose

Controls how hazardous waste is handled; tracks waste from “cradle to grave.”

RCRA – Events leading to it

Rise in industrial waste; unsafe dumping; water and soil contamination; Love Canal; public concern.

RCRA – Year enacted

1976 (President Gerald Ford).

RCRA – Major amendments

1984 banned untreated hazardous waste land disposal; required cleanup of leaking underground tanks; expanded EPA enforcement; 1992 Federal Facility Compliance Act; 1996 flexibility in waste treatment.

RCRA – What it does

Requires tracking of waste; permits for waste facilities; sets safety standards.

RCRA – Problems addressed

Illegal dumping; groundwater pollution; public health risks; poor waste storage.

RCRA – Controversies

Businesses say expensive and restrictive; disputes over what counts as hazardous waste; uneven state enforcement.

RCRA – Impacts

Reduced toxic disposal; improved recycling and waste treatment; increased corporate responsibility; safer underground storage tanks.

Coastal Zone Management Act – Purpose

Protects coastal zones; by protecting coasts, also protects inland areas from natural disasters.

Coastal Zone Management Act – Background

Law favoring states’ rights.

CZMA – Reasons for law

Increased coastal population; pollution and degradation of coastal waters; coastal states pressured need for law.

CZMA – What it does

Preserves, protects, develops, and restores coastal resources; encourages state management; area management plans; public/state/local participation; coordination across governments.

CZMA – Year enacted

1972; amended multiple times.

CZMA – 1990 amendment

Coastal Zone Reauthorization Amendments; strengthened federal consistency; state power over federal activities; created Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program.

CZMA – Controversies

Federal vs state power; disputes over coastal commission authority; political attacks on state review power.

CZMA – Impacts

Small business growth (fisheries/tourism); land restoration; improved land and water issues; federal consistency with state goals.

CZMA – Main impact

Section 307 Federal Consistency was a strong voice in decision making; incentive for coastal states to join the NCZMP

Ocean Dumping Ban Act – Events leading to it

Unregulated sewage and industrial waste dumping; ocean ecosystem damage; beach contamination; tourism and fishery losses; London Convention influence; Syringe Tide.

Ocean Dumping Ban Act – What it does

Bans dumping of sewage sludge and industrial waste into ocean; protects marine ecosystems; reduces human health risks; forces land-based waste treatment.

Ocean Dumping Ban Act – Year enacted

1988.

Ocean Dumping Ban Act – Controversies

Cities upset over cost; factories opposed losing cheap disposal; enforcement burdens; debate over environmental vs economic priorities.

Ocean Dumping Ban Act – Impacts

Reduced ocean pollution; improved marine ecosystems; cleaner coastal waters; higher waste treatment costs; stronger regulation.

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act – Events leading to it

Industrialization; The Jungle by Upton Sinclair; 1937 Elixir Sulfanilamide poisoning; Lash Lure eyelash dye injuries.

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act – Issues addressed

Gave FDA more power; banned mislabeled products; required ingredient lists; regulated cosmetics; prevented deceptive claims; required pre-market drug safety approval.

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act – Year enacted

1906; expanded in 1938 to include cosmetics.

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act – Major amendments

1962 after Thalidomide scandal required proof of drug safety and effectiveness; 1976 regulated medical devices.

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act – Controversies

Drug approval delays; unsafe foods still appearing; FDA vs FTC roles; high testing and labeling costs.

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act – Impacts

Labeled products; ingredient disclosure; safer food; regulated cosmetics; pre-market drug safety testing.

CITES – Full name

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna.

CITES – What led to it

Excessive international wildlife trade; declining animal/plant populations (rhinos, elephants); use in medicine, fashion, food; unsustainable consumption.

CITES – What it does

Ensures wildlife trade is legal and traceable; requires permits; enforced worldwide; species protected by different levels.

CITES – Important dates

1963 initial talks; 1973 final text; 1975 officially created; 1983 Gaborone Amendment; 2025 CoP20 meeting.

CITES – Amendments

Countries propose changes; appendices updated; Gaborone Amendment allowed regional organizations (like EU) to join.

CITES – Impacts

Regulates ~38,000 species; banned commercial trade; prevented extinctions; preserved habitats; elephant ivory ban helped population recovery.

Endangered Species Act – Events leading to it

Lacey Act was weak; post-WWII development and pollution; bald eagle, wolf, and whooping crane declines; earlier endangered species acts in 1960s.

Endangered Species Act – What it does

Protects endangered and threatened species; protects habitats; allows adding/removing species from list; bans import/export of listed species; assists conservation efforts.

Endangered Species Act – Year enacted

1973.

Endangered Species Act – Amendments

Habitat conservation plans; permits for development affecting species; monitoring after recovery; faster listing timelines.

Endangered Species Act – Controversies

Restricts land use; private property rights conflicts; strong federal authority over states.

Endangered Species Act – Impacts

Prevented extinctions; stabilized populations; bald eagle recovery success (removed from list in 2007).

Federal Land Policy and Management Act – What caused it

Westward expansion; unregulated mining; outdated land laws; environmental damage; population pressure; environmental movement.

FLPMA – What it does

Establishes permanent federal land policy; ends large-scale land sales; requires land-use planning; protects environmental resources; regulates extraction; promotes sustainable management.

FLPMA – Multiple use principle

Allows grazing, mining, recreation, wildlife protection, and energy development on same land under regulation.

FLPMA – Sustained yield principle

Uses resources without permanent depletion; ensures long-term land productivity; protects future generations.

FLPMA – Year enacted

1976.

FLPMA – Amendments

1978 and 1987 updated planning, grazing fees, and protections.

FLPMA – Controversies

Federal vs state control; rancher and mining opposition; environmental group support for stronger protection; land access disputes.

FLPMA – Impacts

Improved conservation of public lands; reduced land sales; increased public involvement; balanced economic and environmental use.

NEPA – Full name

National Environmental Policy Act.

NEPA – Events leading to it

Post-WWII industrialization; environmental movement; Cuyahoga River fire; Santa Barbara oil spill.

NEPA – Purpose

Encourage harmony between humans and environment; prevent environmental damage; promote health and welfare; create Council on Environmental Quality.

NEPA – What it does

Requires environmental consideration in federal decisions; mandates Environmental Impact Statements; requires agencies to consider alternatives; ensures public transparency.

NEPA – Year enacted

1969 (signed by Nixon); regulations in 1978.

NEPA – Recent amendments

2020 Trump changes reduced review scope; 2021–2024 Biden broadened reviews; 2023 Fiscal Responsibility Act sped projects; 2025 removal of regulations weakened NEPA.

NEPA – Controversies

Delays and costs; environment vs development; uncertainty for agencies; discriminatory land-use impacts.

NEPA – Impacts

Reduced pollution and habitat destruction; protects wildlife and public health; requires public notice; better project design (example: wildlife crossings in Everglades).

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act – What does it do?

Gives the FDA more power to enforce regulations; bans sale of mislabeled products; requires ingredient lists; regulates cosmetics; prevents deceptive claims; requires pre-market drug approval and safety testing; increases food standards and poison control.

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) – What does it do?

Regulates pesticide manufacturing and use; requires EPA registration before pesticides can be sold; labels must include directions for use and disposal.

FIFRA – Year enacted

1947.

FIFRA – What led to it?

Unregulated pesticides in early 1900s caused fraud, mislabeling, and unsafe products; post-WWII pesticide boom raised health and environmental concerns.

FIFRA – Key requirement

Pesticides must be registered and approved by the EPA before sale.

FIFRA – Major amendments timeline

1964 strengthened regulation; 1970 authority transferred to EPA; 1972 modern pesticide policy foundation; 1988 strengthened EPA authority; 1996 Food Quality Protection Act.

FIFRA – Major controversy

DTT and Silent Spring raised alarms about pesticide harm to wildlife and human health.

FIFRA – Other controversies

Pesticides linked to cancer and ecosystem damage; cost-benefit standard; unequal enforcement; environmental justice concerns.

FIFRA – Major impacts

Required toxicity testing; reduced misuse; improved labeling; lowered pesticide residues in food and water; encouraged safer pest management methods.