the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
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encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
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storage
the retention of encoded information over time
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retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
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sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
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short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
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long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
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working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
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parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
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automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
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effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
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rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.
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spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study of practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.
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serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
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visual encoding
the encoding of picture images
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acoustic encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
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semantic encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
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imagery
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
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menemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
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iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
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echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
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long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
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flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
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amnesia
the loss of memory
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implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection. (nondeclarative or procedural memory)
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explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (declarative memory)
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hippocampus
a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
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recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
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recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
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relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
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priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memroy
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deja vu
the eerie sense that"I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
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mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
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proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
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retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall fo old information
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repression
the psychoanalytic theory, the basis defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
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misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
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source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experiences, heard about, read about, or imagined (source misattribution) the heart of many false memories
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cognition
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
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concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
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algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problems. contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone-use of heuristics
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heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
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insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
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creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
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confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
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fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set
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mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
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functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
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representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood o things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or math, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
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availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
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overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
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belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
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intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
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framing
the way an issue is posed; can affect decisions and judgements
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language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
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phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
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morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
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grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
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semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also the study of meaning
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syntax
the rules for combing words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
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babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
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one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
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two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
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telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram -
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go car"- using mostly nouns and verbs
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linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
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Anterograde Amnesia
inability to retrieve info from new memories
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Retrograde Amnesia
inability to retrieve from ones past
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Encoding Failure
brain’s failure to create a memory
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storage decay
memories we encode but were discared over time
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Retrieval failure
failure to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues
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Reconsolidation
reactivationg exsisting memory from the past
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Critical period
certain time period in development were a skill must be learned
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aphasia
impairment of lang caused by left hemisphere demage to brocas area and wenickes
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wernickes area
controls lang reception brain area involved in lang comprehession
Studied by 10 people
