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Industrial Revolution

The transition from hand production to machine-based factory manufacturing beginning in Britain in the late 1700s.

Agricultural Revolution

18th-century farming innovations that increased food supply and freed labor for industry.

Cotton Industry

First major industrialized industry; relied on mechanized spinning and weaving.

Hand-loom weavers

Preindustrial textile workers displaced by mechanized factories.

Cottage system

Preindustrial system where families produced goods at home for merchants.

Richard Arkwright

Inventor of the water frame; pioneer of the factory system.

James Hargreaves

Invented the spinning jenny.

Samuel Crompton

Invented the spinning mule combining earlier machines.

James Watt

Improved the steam engine for industrial use.

Henry Cort

Developed processes improving wrought iron production.

Coal

Primary fuel of the Industrial Revolution.

Coke

Coal derivative used in iron production.

Pig iron

Crude iron produced in blast furnaces.

Wrought iron

Refined iron stronger and more flexible than pig iron.

Canals

Artificial waterways used to transport heavy goods cheaply.

Capital

Money invested in machines, factories, and industry.

Joint-stock companies

Businesses owned by shareholders sharing profits and risks.

Tariffs

Taxes on imported goods to protect domestic industries.

Industrial factory

Centralized workplace using machines and wage labor.

Factory discipline

Strict work rules regulating time, behavior, and productivity.

Preindustrial workers

Artisans and rural laborers before factory labor.

Suburbs

Residential areas outside cities for middle-class families.

Cholera

Deadly waterborne disease common in industrial cities.

Poor Law Commission

British agency that reformed poor relief through workhouses.

Workhouse

Institution where the poor worked under harsh conditions.

Edwin Chadwick

Social reformer who linked sanitation to public health.

Bourgeoisie

Middle-class industrial and commercial elites.

New elites

Wealthy industrialists replacing aristocrats as economic leaders.

Trade unions

Worker organizations seeking better wages and conditions.

Luddites

Workers who destroyed machines in protest of industrialization.

Robert Owen

Utopian socialist and factory reformer.

Chartism

Working-class movement demanding political reforms and suffrage.

The American system

Use of interchangeable parts and mass production.

Ireland (Potato)

Dependence on potatoes led to famine and mass emigration.

The Crystal Palace

Glass structure symbolizing industrial progress at the 1851 Great Exhibition.