Chapter 2: An Integrative Approach to Psychopathology

left off 2.3

multidimensional integrative approach

Approach to the study of psychopathology that holds psychological disorders as always being the products of multiple interacting causal factors.

genes

Long deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules, the basic physical units of heredity that appear as locations on chromosomes. A single gene is a subunit of DNA that determines inherited traits in living things.

diathesis–stress model

A hypothesis that both an inherited tendency (a vulnerability) and specific stressful conditions are required to produce a disorder.

vulnerability

A susceptibility or tendency to develop a disorder.

gene–environment correlation model

A hypothesis that people with a genetic pre-disposition for a disorder may also have a genetic tendency to create environmental risk factors that promote the disorder.

epigenetics

The study of factors other than inherited DNA sequence, such as new learning or stress, that alter the phenotypic expression of genes.

neuroscience

Study of the nervous system and its role in behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

neurons

Individual nerve cell; responsible for transmitting information.

action potentials

Short periods of electrical activity at the membrane of a neuron, responsible for the transmission of signals within the neuron.

terminal button

The end of an axon (of a neuron) where neurotransmitters are stored before release.

synaptic cleft

Space between nerve cells where chemical transmitters act to move impulses from one neuron to the next.

neurotransmitters

Chemicals that cross the synaptic cleft between nerve cells to transmit impulses from one neuron to the next. Their relative excess or deficiency is involved in several psychological disorders.

excitatory

Causing excitation; activating.

inhibitory

Causing inhibition; suppressing.

hormone

Chemical messenger produced by the endocrine glands.

brain circuits

The neurotransmitter currents or neural pathways in the brain.

agonists

Chemical substance that effectively increases the activity of a neurotransmitter by imitating its effects.

antagonists

In neuroscience, a chemical substance that decreases or blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter.

inverse agonists

Chemical substance that produces effects opposite those of a particular neurotransmitter.

reuptake

Action by which a neurotransmitter is quickly drawn back into the discharging neuron after being released into a synaptic cleft.

glutamate

Amino acid neurotransmitter that excites many different neurons, leading to action.

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

A neurotransmitter that reduces activity across the synapse and thus inhibits a range of behaviors and emotions, especially generalized anxiety.

serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in processing of information and coordination of movement, as well as inhibition and restraint. It also assists in the regulation of eating, sexual, and aggressive behaviors, all of which may be involved in different psychological disorders. Its interaction with dopamine is implicated in schizophrenia.

norepinephrine

(also noradrenaline) The neurotransmitter active in the central and peripheral nervous systems, controlling heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, among other functions. Because of its role in the body’s alarm reaction, it may also contribute generally and indirectly to panic attacks and other disorders.

dopamine

whose generalized function is to activate other neurotransmitters and to aid in exploratory and pleasure-seeking behaviors (thus balancing serotonin). A relative excess of dopamine is implicated in schizophrenia (although contradictory evidence suggests the connection is not simple), and its deficit is involved in Parkinson’s disease.

microbiota

Entirety of the microorganisms (such as fungi, viruses, and bacteria) that populate the intestines. The combined genome of these organisms is called the microbiome. The influence of the microbiome of the gut on psychological well-being is called the psychobiome.

brain–gut connection

The influence of the gut bacteria on physical and mental health.

cognitive science

Field of study that examines how humans and other animals acquire, process, store, and retrieve information.

learned helplessness

Martin Seligman’s theory that people become anxious and depressed when they make an attribution that they have no control over the stress in their lives (whether or not they do in reality).

modeling

(also known as observational learning) Learning through observation and imitation of the behavior of other individuals and consequences of that behavior.

prepared learning

An ability that has been adaptive for evolution, allowing certain associations to be learned more readily than others.

implicit memory

Condition of memory in which a person cannot recall past events despite acting in response to them (contrast with explicit memory).

flight or fight response

Biological reaction to alarming stressors that musters the body’s resources (for example, blood flow and respiration) to resist or flee a threat.

emotion

Pattern of action elicited by an external event and a feeling state, accompanied by a characteristic physiological response.

mood

Enduring period of emotionality.

affect

Conscious, subjective aspect of an emotion that accompanies an action at a given time.

circumplex model

A model describing different emotions as points in a two-dimensional space of valence and arousal.

equifinality

Developmental psychopathology principle that a behavior or disorder may have several causes.

6 key factors/influences of disorders

Behavioral, biological, emotional, social, Developmental, cognitive

developmental critical period

“… when we are more or less reactive to a given situation or influence than at other times.”

The fact that some phobias are more common than others (such as fear of heights and snakes) and may have contributed to the survival of the species in the past suggests that phobias may be genetically prewired. This is evidence for which influence?

biological

Miray’s husband, Jinx, was an unemployed jerk who spent his life chasing women other than his wife. Miray, happily divorced for years, cannot understand why the smell of Jinx’s brand of aftershave causes her to become nauseated. Which influence best explains her response?

behavioral (best answer) or emotional

Ichiro, age 16, finds it more difficult than his 7-year-old sister to adjust to his parents’ recent separation. This may be explained by what influences?

developmental

A traumatic ride on a Ferris wheel at a young age was most likely to have been the initial cause of Isabella’s fear of heights. Her strong emotional reaction to heights is likely to maintain or even increase her fear. The initial development of the phobia is likely a result of ___ influences; however, ___ influences are likely perpetuating the phobia.

behavioral (initial) ; emotional (maintenance)

??? are like the limits of our development, and the ??? shapes us

genes ; environment

?? “…provide programs or directions for the development of the body and brain, and the last pair, called the sex chromosomes, also determines an individual’s sex.”

The first 22 pairs of chromosomes (called autosomes)

The first 22 pairs of chromosomes (called ??)

autosomes

“The steps of the ladder are the four nucleotides with their nucleobases, ….”

adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine

Adenine forms a pair with …

thymine

cytosine forms a pair with …

guanine

“The DNA sequence that defines a gene is called ….”

coding DNA

“For a gene to be expressed, the DNA code is first …”

copied (or transcribed) into a strand of ribonucleic acid (RNA).

“The specific location on a chromosome that codes for a gene is the …”

genetic locus

“…we always have ___ at each genetic locus inherited from each parent.”

two alternative forms of a gene

“Alternative (or variant) forms of genes are called ….”

alleles

“The outward appearance of the person (or any organism) is called the person’s ….”

phenotype

“Each pair of alleles represents the … of a specific gene.”

genotype

“The different forms of alleles are called ….”

polymorphism

“…the most common polymorphism in the human genome is the … (SNP, which is pronounced snip). This occurs when ….”

single nucleotide polymorphism ; one nucleotide replaces another

“A … is one of a pair of genes that strongly influences a particular trait, and we need only one of them to determine.”

dominant allele

“A … must be paired with another (recessive) allele to determine a trait.”

recessive allele

“Much of our development and most of our behavior, our personality, and even our intelligence are ….”

polygenic

polygenic means …

influenced by many genes, each contributing only a tiny effect, all of which, in turn, may be influenced by the environment.

“… examines the contribution of genes that code for dimensional, rather than discrete, traits (phenotypes).”

Quantitative genetics

“??? focuses on examining the actual structure of genes with increasingly advanced technologies such as DNA microarrays…”

Molecular genetics

what factors can influence genes?

environment, social, culture, life events

“For psychological disorders, the evidence indicates that genetic factors make some contribution to all disorders but account for ???.”

less than half of the explanation

Two models for gene–environment interactions on disorders

• the diathesis–stress model

• the reciprocal gene–environment model (or gene–environment correlations)

explain the diathesis–stress model

people inherit tendencies that make them more likely to developing a disorder when activated by stress

explain the gene–environment correlation model

people with genes for disorders may also have genes that make them more likely to expose themselves to triggers

what did cross-fostering experiments show

maternal behavior in early stages of life have significant impact, even if child is genetically predisposed

“Although the environment cannot change our DNA sequence, it can have an influence on the DNA by changing the gene expression. This phenomenon is referred to as …”

epigenetics

The first 20 pairs of chromosomes program the development of the body and brain. True or False?

False

No individual genes have been identified that cause any major psychological disorders. True or False

True

True or false: According to the diathesis–stress model, people inherit a vulnerability to express certain traits or behaviors that may be activated under certain stress conditions

True

The idea that individuals may have a genetic endowment to increase the probability that they will experience stressful life events and therefore trigger a vulnerability is in accordance with the diathesis–stress model. True or False

False

Environmental events alone influence the development of our behavior and personalities. True or false?

False