AP Psych Unit 2 Terms to Know

From CED

perception

process of selecting, organizing, interpreting sensory info

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information (sensation first)

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations (experience first)

perceptual set

the tendency to perceive sensory stimuli in a certain way because of past experiences (a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another)

schema

a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, mental representations/framwork of what an event/object is

gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts when given a cluster of visual images

gestalt

an organized whole

closure

grouping in which we tend to fill in the gaps to create a compete whole object

figure and ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

proximity

grouping in which we group nearby figures together; we group objects that are close together as being part of the same group

similarity

grouping in which we tend to group things together based on how similar to each other they are

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus; we consciously process a very limited portion of incoming sensory info

inattentional blindness

the failure to notice the existence of an unexpected item when our attention is focused elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

cocktail-party effect

the ability to focus one's attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli (ex: your name being called in a room with lots of people)

depth perception

our ability to see the world in 3D AND judge distances of objects

binocular cues

visual cues that rely on information from both eyes

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

monocular cues

visual/depth cues that can be detected with only one eye (depth cue that is available to either eye)

relative size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth in which we perceive an object as farther away when it casts a smaller retinal image (vice-versa for larger items)

relative clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

interposition (overlapping)

monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away

texture gradient

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed

apparent movement

the perception that a stationary object is moving

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change which enables us to perceive objects as stable/consistent despite the changing image they cast on our retinas

thinking

cognitive activity in which images, mental representations, or other hypothetical elements are experienced or manipulated

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

prototype

ideal, best/most common example or representation of a particular category

schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Representatativeness heuristic

leads us to judge the likelihood of things in terms of how they represent our prototype for a group of items

availability

we judge the likelihood of things based on how readily/easily they come to mind

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

belief perserverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

framing

the way an issue is presented or worded can impact how people respond

sunk-cost fallacy

once something has been undertaken/invested in (time or money), people feel the need to continue that behavior/endeavor

gambler's fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

executive functions

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, set/carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

creativity

the ability to produce novel (unique) and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

cognition

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, forming/retrieving memories, and communicating

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

explicit memory

recollection is consciously/intentionally/deliberately done: refers to learned facts, events and experiences

episodic memory

long-term memory system that stores info about specific events (episodes) related to one's own life (memory of life events)

semantic memory

long term memory that stores general knowledge (ie address, phone #)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

implicit memories

learned skills and classically conditions associations independent of conscious recollection (happens without our awareness, through automatic processing)

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

procedural memory

the memory for the process of completing a task after it has been learned and become more automatic/subconscious

prospective memory

the memory for tasks that need to be completed in the future

long-term potentiation (LTP)

the increased efficiency of potential neural firing (long lasting increase in a nerve's firing power)

working memory model

An explanation of the memory used when working on a task.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

phonological loop

a short-term store for verbal info kept active through rehearsal (thinking about info, repeating them to oneself)

visuospatial sketchpad

a short-term store for visual/spatial material (believed to be essential for mental imagery and spatial reasoning)

central executive

the master component that coordinates activities among the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer

episodic buffer

A component of working memory where information in working memory interacts with information in long term memory (eg. relating information you are processing to a previous memory)

multi-store model

Explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems; focuses on how we process explicit memories

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

iconic memory

a very brief sensory memory of a visual stimuli

echoic memory

three or four second sensory memory of auditory stimuli

divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

levels of processing model

model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time

structural processing

paying attention to the physical qualities of words; the look of a word

phonemic processing

paying attention to the sounds of words; the sound of a word

semantic processing

paying attention to the meaning of a word; the meaning of a word

shallow processing/encoding

we process/encode words at the structural and phonemic levels (rather than the semantic level)

deep processing/encoding

processing/encoding words semantically (meaning)

temporal lobes

part of brain that receive explicit memories for storage after encoding by the hippocampus

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

categories

groups or classes of things

hierarchies

dividing info into a few broad concepts that are then subdivided into narrower concepts/facts

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

distributed practice

we retain info better when rehearsal is distributed (spread out) over time (as opposed to massed practice)

massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying is crammed, done all in one sitting

spacing effect

learning is greater when spaced out over time rather than crammed into one session (learn quick, forget quick)

serial position effect

the effect an item's position on a list has on how well it is recalled accounts for our tendency to recall best from a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

flashbulb memories

memories of vivid events that have strong emotional content

sensory memory storage

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.