memory

information processing theory

encoding, storage, and retrieval

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

automatic process

some sensory information is encoded without any conscious effort

effortful process

sensory information is encoded with effort and consciousness (2 methods)

rehearsal

the constant repetition of information

spacing effect

rehearsing information repeatedly over time

semantic encoding

the encoding of words, definitions, meanings, names, dates, events, etc., attaching meaning to information

visual encoding

the encoding of picture images, creating mental pictures to represent information

serial position effect

the tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

structural encoding

grouping information logically, chunking, categories, etc.

mnemonics

tools/strategies used to reinforce memory

chunking

organizing items into smaller, more familiar and manageable units

acronyms

organizing by first letter

iconic memory

our fleeting photographic memory

echoic memory

our fleeting memory for auditory sensations

memory capacity: short-term memory

limited 5-9 unit capacity

memory capacity: long-term memory

unlimited capacity

memory capacity: sensory memory

large capacity

duration: short-term memory

up to 30 seconds without rehearsal

duration: long-term memory

relatively permanent duration

duration: sensory memory

up to half a second for visual; 2-4 seconds for auditory

recall

the ability to retrieve exact information from an earlier time

recognition

a measure of memory in which a person only needs to identify items previously learned

relearning

the principle that if you learned something and forgot it, you will learn it more easily next time

retrieval cues

help access stored information in long-term memory

primers

the activation of particular associations in memory by a keyword or type of sensory input

context effects

the tendency to remember information more accurately when you are in the same environment you learned the information in

state-dependent theory

what we learn in one emotional or physical state is sometimes more easily recalled when we are in that same emotional state

mood-congruent

our moods bias our past memories

interference

when memories compete—making it harder to remember information accurately

proactive interference

when an old memory disrupts your ability to create a new memory

retroactive interference

when new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier

decay theory

forgetting is due to internal metabolic processes that occur in the brain over time (unused memories are forgotten)

motivated forgetting

when people intentionally or unconsciously block out memories—usually traumatic

repression

when the brain unconsciously pushes painful memories out of conscious awareness

suppression

a deliberate effort to avoid thinking something

memory improvement

rehearsal, spacing effect, chunking, acronyms

explicit memory

conscious memories of facts or events that we actively try to remember

implicit memory

memories that are unintentional and are brought to consciousness inadvertently

episodic memory

memories of specific events, stored ina sequence

semantic memory

general knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meaning, or in categories

procedural memory

memories of skills and how to perform them

hippocampus

relevant to short-term memory until memories can be transferred into long-term memory

cerebellum

primarily responsible for implicit memory storage

amygdala

stores many memories tied to emotions

transience

much of what we learn we forget rather quickly if it’s not used (forgetting curve)

source confusion

when the true source of a memory is forgotten, so you create details to fill in the gaps

misinformation effect

a person’s existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading questions or information

amnesia

severe memory loss

retrograde amnesia

patients lose their memory of past events, especially most recent

anterograde amnesia

the inability to form new memories

Alzheimer’s

as plaques build in the brain and interfere with the neural transmissions, memory cannot be formed or received

encoding failure

information is not properly stored in memory due to inattention, too much information, or shallow processing