psych202

Psychology

The scientific study of mind and behavior.

Empiricism

The view that knowledge comes from experience and observation.

Introspection

Self-examination of one’s thoughts and feelings.

Structuralism

Early psychology approach analyzing consciousness by breaking it into basic elements.

Functionalism

Focuses on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.

Psychoanalytic theory

Freud’s theory that unconscious drives and childhood experiences shape behavior.

Gestalt psychology

Emphasizes perception as a whole rather than the sum of its parts.

Behaviorism

Studies behavior through observable actions and conditioning, ignoring mental states.

Humanism

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and human potential.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A model of human motivation, prioritizing basic needs before self-actualization.

Client-centered therapy

A humanistic approach by Carl Rogers, emphasizing empathy and unconditional support.

The cognitive revolution

A shift in psychology focusing on mental processes like thinking and memory.

American Psychological Association (APA)

The largest U.S. psychology organization, setting ethical and research standards.

Biopsychology

Studies how biology influences behavior and mental processes.

Evolutionary psychology

Examines how natural selection shapes cognition and behavior to enhance fitness.

Cognitive psychology

The study of mental processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving.

Developmental psychology

Studies how people grow and change over their lifespan.

Personality psychology

Examines individual personality traits and how they influence behavior.

Five factor model

A personality theory describing traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Social psychology

Studies how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.

Industrial-organizational psychology

Examines workplace behavior to improve productivity and well-being.

Health psychology

Explores how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.

Biopsychosocial model

Explains health through biological, psychological, and social interactions.

Sport and exercise psychology

Studies psychological factors that affect performance and physical activity.

Clinical psychology

Assesses and treats mental illness and psychological disorders.

Counseling psychology

Helps people cope with life challenges and improve well-being.

Forensic psychology

Applies psychology to legal and criminal justice settings.

Facts

Objective, verifiable information.

Opinions

Subjective beliefs or judgments.

Inductive reasoning

Drawing general conclusions from specific observations.

Deductive reasoning

Applying general principles to reach specific conclusions.

Theory

A well-supported explanation of phenomena based on evidence.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about a relationship between variables.

Falsifiable

Capable of being proven wrong through evidence or experimentation.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or small group.

Generalizing

Applying findings from specific cases to broader contexts.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without interference.

Observer bias

When a researcher’s expectations affect observations.

Inter-rater reliability

The degree to which different observers agree on measurements.

Survey

A research method using questionnaires to gather data from a group.

Sample

A subset of a population used in research.

Population

The entire group a study aims to understand.

Archival research

Analyzing existing records or data sets.

Longitudinal research

Studying the same group over a long period.

Cross-sectional research

Comparing different groups at one point in time.

Attrition

Loss of participants in a study over time.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A number (-1 to 1) that shows strength/direction of correlation.

Positive correlation

Variables increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation

One variable increases while the other decreases.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that affects both studied variables.

Illusory correlations

Seeing relationships that don’t actually exist.

Confirmation bias

Favoring information that confirms existing beliefs.

Experimental group

The group that receives the treatment in an experiment.

Control group

The group that does not receive the treatment for comparison.

Operational definition

A precise explanation of how a variable is measured.

Experimenter bias

When researchers' expectations affect study results.

Single-blind study

Participants don’t know which group they’re in.

Double-blind study

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.

Placebo effect

When expectations alone cause a change in behavior.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent variable

The outcome measured in an experiment.

Participants

People who take part in a study.

Random sample

A sample where everyone has an equal chance of selection.

Random assignment

Randomly placing participants into experimental or control groups.

Statistical analysis

Applying math to interpret research data.

Peer-reviewed journal articles

Research evaluated by experts before publication.

Reliability

Consistency in research results over time.

Validity

Accuracy in measuring what is intended.

Institutional review board

A committee that reviews research ethics.

Deception

Misleading participants to maintain study integrity.

Debriefing

Informing participants about a study’s true purpose afterward.

Institutional animal care and use committee

Oversees ethical treatment of research animals.

Chromosomes

DNA structures carrying genetic information.

DNA

The molecule containing genetic instructions.

Genes

DNA segments that determine traits.

Allele

A variant form of a gene.

Genotype

An individual’s genetic makeup.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics influenced by genes.

Dominant allele

Expressed even with one copy.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a trait.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a trait.

Recessive allele

Expressed only with two copies.

Polygenic

Traits influenced by multiple genes.

Mutation

A genetic change that can affect traits.

Range of reaction

Genetic potential influenced by the environment.

Genetic-environmental correlation

Genes and environment interact to shape behavior.

Epigenetics

How environment affects gene expression.

Nervous system

The body's communication network for processing information.

Glial cells

Support cells for neurons.

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures receiving signals.

Axon

Transmits signals away from the neuron.

Terminal buttons

Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other cells.

Synaptic vesicles

Store and release neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers in the nervous system.

Myelin sheath

Fatty coating that speeds up neural signals.

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in myelin that aid signal transmission.

Synaptic cleft

The space between neurons where communication occurs.