psych202

psychology - The scientific study of mind and behavior.

empiricism - The view that knowledge comes from experience and observation.

introspection - Self-examination of one’s thoughts and feelings.

structuralism - Early psychology approach analyzing consciousness by breaking it into basic elements.

functionalism - Focuses on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.

psychoanalytic theory - Freud’s theory that unconscious drives and childhood experiences shape behavior.

gestalt psychology - Emphasizes perception as a whole rather than the sum of its parts.

behaviorism - Studies behavior through observable actions and conditioning, ignoring mental states.

humanism - Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and human potential.

maslow’s hierarchy of needs - A model of human motivation, prioritizing basic needs before self-actualization.

client-centered therapy - A humanistic approach by Carl Rogers, emphasizing empathy and unconditional support.

the cognitive revolution - A shift in psychology focusing on mental processes like thinking and memory.

american psychological association (APA) - The largest U.S. psychology organization, setting ethical and research standards.

biopsychology - Studies how biology influences behavior and mental processes.

evolutionary psychology - Examines how natural selection shapes cognition and behavior to enhance fitness.

cognitive psychology - The study of mental processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving.

developmental psychology - Studies how people grow and change over their lifespan.

personality psychology - Examines individual personality traits and how they influence behavior.

five factor model - A personality theory describing traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

social psychology - Studies how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.

industrial-organizational psychology - Examines workplace behavior to improve productivity and well-being.

health psychology - Explores how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.

biopsychosocial model - Explains health through biological, psychological, and social interactions.

sport and exercise psychology - Studies psychological factors that affect performance and physical activity.

clinical psychology - Assesses and treats mental illness and psychological disorders.

counseling psychology - Helps people cope with life challenges and improve well-being.

forensic psychology - Applies psychology to legal and criminal justice settings.

facts - Objective, verifiable information.

opinions - Subjective beliefs or judgments.

inductive reasoning - Drawing general conclusions from specific observations.

deductive reasoning - Applying general principles to reach specific conclusions.

theory - A well-supported explanation of phenomena based on evidence.

hypothesis - A testable prediction about a relationship between variables.

falsifiable - Capable of being proven wrong through evidence or experimentation.

case study - An in-depth analysis of an individual or small group.

case study pros - Provides rich detail; useful for rare cases.

case study cons - Limited generalizability; potential researcher bias.

generalizing - Applying findings from specific cases to broader contexts.

naturalistic observation - Observing behavior in its natural environment without interference.

naturalistic observation pros - High real-world relevance; avoids artificial lab settings.

naturalistic observation cons - Lack of control over variables; observer bias.

observer bias - When a researcher’s expectations affect observations.

inter-rater reliability - The degree to which different observers agree on measurements.

That's a long list! I'll provide concise definitions for each term:

survey - A research method using questionnaires to gather data from a group.
survey pros - Quick, cost-effective, and collects large amounts of data.
survey cons - Can have biased responses and lacks depth.
sample - A subset of a population used in research.
population - The entire group a study aims to understand.
archival research - Analyzing existing records or data sets.
archival research pros - Saves time; allows studying historical trends.
archival research cons - No control over data quality; may be incomplete.
longitudinal research - Studying the same group over a long period.
longitudinal research pros - Tracks development and changes over time.
cross-sectional research - Comparing different groups at one point in time.
cross-sectional research pros - Quick and cost-effective.
cross-sectional research cons - Can't track individual changes over time.
attrition - Loss of participants in a study over time.
correlation - A relationship between two variables.
correlation coefficient - A number (-1 to 1) that shows strength/direction of correlation.
positive correlation - Variables increase or decrease together.
negative correlation - One variable increases while the other decreases.
confounding variable - An outside factor that affects both studied variables.
illusory correlations - Seeing relationships that don’t actually exist.
confirmation bias - Favoring information that confirms existing beliefs.
experimental group - The group that receives the treatment in an experiment.
control group - The group that does not receive the treatment for comparison.
operational definition - A precise explanation of how a variable is measured.
experimenter bias - When researchers' expectations affect study results.
single-blind study - Participants don’t know which group they’re in.
double-blind study - Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.
placebo effect - When expectations alone cause a change in behavior.
independent variable - The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
dependent variable - The outcome measured in an experiment.
participants - People who take part in a study.
random sample - A sample where everyone has an equal chance of selection.
random assignment - Randomly placing participants into experimental or control groups.
statistical analysis - Applying math to interpret research data.
peer-reviewed journal articles - Research evaluated by experts before publication.
reliability - Consistency in research results over time.
validity - Accuracy in measuring what is intended.
institutional review board - A committee that reviews research ethics.
deception - Misleading participants to maintain study integrity.
debriefing - Informing participants about a study’s true purpose afterward.
institutional animal care and use committee - Oversees ethical treatment of research animals.
chromosomes - DNA structures carrying genetic information.
DNA - The molecule containing genetic instructions.
genes - DNA segments that determine traits.
allele - A variant form of a gene.
genotype - An individual’s genetic makeup.
phenotype - Observable characteristics influenced by genes.
dominant allele - Expressed even with one copy.
homozygous - Having two identical alleles for a trait.
heterozygous - Having two different alleles for a trait.
recessive allele - Expressed only with two copies.
polygenic - Traits influenced by multiple genes.
mutation - A genetic change that can affect traits.
range of reaction - Genetic potential influenced by the environment.
genetic-environmental correlation - Genes and environment interact to shape behavior.
epigenetics - How environment affects gene expression.
nervous system - The body's communication network for processing information.
glial cells - Support cells for neurons.
neurons - Nerve cells that transmit information.
soma - The cell body of a neuron.
dendrites - Branch-like structures receiving signals.
axon - Transmits signals away from the neuron.
terminal buttons - Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other cells.
synaptic vesicles - Store and release neurotransmitters.
neurotransmitters - Chemical messengers in the nervous system.
myelin sheath - Fatty coating that speeds up neural signals.
nodes of Ranvier - Gaps in myelin that aid signal transmission.
synaptic cleft - The space between neurons where communication occurs.
receptors - Proteins that receive neurotransmitter signals.
membrane potential - Electrical charge difference across a neuron’s membrane.
resting potential - The stable charge of an inactive neuron.
threshold of excitation - The level needed to trigger an action potential.
action potential - A neural impulse carrying information.
all-or-none phenomenon - Neurons either fire fully or not at all.
reuptake - Reabsorption of neurotransmitters after signaling.
agonists - Substances that enhance neurotransmitter effects.
antagonists - Substances that block neurotransmitter effects.
central nervous system - The brain and spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system - Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
somatic nervous system - Controls voluntary movements.
autonomic nervous system - Regulates involuntary functions.
sympathetic nervous system - Activates fight-or-flight response.
parasympathetic nervous system - Restores body to a calm state.
homeostasis - Maintaining internal stability.
spinal cord - Transmits messages between brain and body.
neuroplasticity - The brain’s ability to adapt and change.
cerebral cortex - The brain’s outer layer for higher thinking.
gyri - Ridges on the brain’s surface.
sulci - Grooves in the brain’s surface.
longitudinal fissure - Deep groove separating brain hemispheres.
hemispheres - The two halves of the brain.
lateralization - Specialization of brain functions in each hemisphere.
corpus callosum - Connects the brain’s hemispheres.
forebrain - Largest brain part controlling complex processes.
frontal lobe - Handles thinking, decision-making, and movement.
motor cortex - Controls voluntary movements.
prefrontal cortex - Involved in planning and reasoning.
Broca’s area - Controls speech production.
parietal lobe - Processes sensory information.
somatosensory cortex - Processes touch and body position.
temporal lobe - Handles hearing and memory.
auditory cortex - Processes sound information.
Wernicke’s area - Involved in language comprehension.
occipital lobe - Processes visual information.
thalamus - Relays sensory information to the brain.
limbic system - Regulates emotions and memory.
hippocampus - Essential for memory formation.
amygdala - Involved in emotions like fear.
hypothalamus - Regulates hunger, body temperature, and hormones.
midbrain - Coordinates movement and sensory processing.
reticular formation - Controls alertness and sleep.
substantia nigra - Plays a role in movement and reward.
ventral tegmental area - Involved in motivation and pleasure.
hindbrain - Regulates essential functions like breathing.
medulla - Controls vital functions like heartbeat.
pons - Connects brain regions and aids movement.
cerebellum - Coordinates balance and movement.
computerized tomography scan - Uses X-rays for brain imaging.
positron emission tomography - Measures brain activity with radioactive tracers.
magnetic resonance imaging - Uses magnets to create brain images.
functional magnetic resonance imaging - Tracks brain activity by detecting oxygen levels.
electroencephalography - Measures brain’s electrical activity.
sensation - Detecting sensory stimuli.
transduction - Converting sensory input into neural signals.
absolute threshold - Minimum stimulus detected 50% of the time.
subliminal messages - Stimuli below conscious awareness.
difference threshold - Smallest detectable difference between stimuli.
perception - Interpreting sensory information.
bottom-up processing - Perception driven by raw sensory input.
top-down processing - Perception influenced by expectations.
sensory adaptation - Decreased sensitivity to constant stimuli.
inattentional blindness - Missing visible stimuli when focused elsewhere.
signal detection theory - Explains how we detect faint signals.
amplitude - Height of a wave, affecting intensity.
wavelength - Distance between wave peaks.
frequency - Number of wave cycles per second.
hertz - Unit of frequency.
visible spectrum - Light wavelengths humans can see.
electromagnetic spectrum - Range of all light waves.
pitch - Perceived frequency of sound.
decibels - Measure of sound intensity.

Here are the concise definitions:

timbre - The quality of a sound that makes it unique.
cornea - The eye’s transparent outer layer that focuses light.
pupil - The adjustable eye opening that controls light entry.
lens - Focuses light onto the retina for clear vision.
fovea - The retina’s center with the highest visual acuity.
retina - The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye.
cones - Retinal cells responsible for color vision.
rods - Retinal cells that detect low light and motion.
optic nerve - Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
blind spot - The area where the optic nerve leaves the eye, lacking receptors.
optic chiasm - The point where optic nerves cross in the brain.
trichromatic theory of color vision - The idea that color vision is based on red, green, and blue cone activity.
opponent-process theory of color vision - The theory that color is perceived in opposing pairs (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow).
afterimage - A lingering visual impression after a stimulus is removed.
depth perception - The ability to judge distance and three-dimensional space.
binocular cues - Depth perception cues requiring both eyes.
binocular disparity - The difference between images seen by each eye.
monocular cues - Depth cues that work with one eye.
linear perspective - Parallel lines appearing to converge with distance.
pinna - The outer ear structure that collects sound.
tympanic membrane - The eardrum, which vibrates in response to sound.
ossicles - The three tiny middle ear bones that amplify sound.
cochlea - The inner ear structure that converts sound into nerve signals.
hair cells - Sensory receptors in the cochlea that detect sound vibrations.
basilar membrane - The structure in the cochlea that vibrates to different sound frequencies.
temporal theory of pitch perception - Suggests pitch is determined by the firing rate of auditory neurons.
place theory of pitch perception - Suggests pitch is determined by where the basilar membrane vibrates.
monaural - Relating to one ear.
binaural - Relating to both ears.
interaural level difference - The difference in sound intensity between ears, helping with localization.
interaural timing difference - The slight difference in when a sound reaches each ear, aiding localization.
deafness - Partial or total hearing loss.
congenital deafness - Hearing loss present at birth.
conductive hearing loss - Hearing loss due to issues in the outer or middle ear.
sensorineural hearing loss - Hearing loss due to inner ear or nerve damage.
cochlear implants - Electronic devices that restore hearing by stimulating the auditory nerve.
taste buds - Sensory receptors on the tongue that detect taste.
olfactory receptor cells - Sensory cells in the nose that detect smells.
olfactory bulb - The brain structure that processes smell information.
pheromones - Chemical signals used for communication between organisms.
Meissner’s corpuscles - Sensory receptors that detect light touch.
Pacinian corpuscles - Sensory receptors that detect deep pressure and vibration.
Merkel’s disks - Sensory receptors that detect steady pressure and texture.
Ruffini corpuscles - Sensory receptors that detect skin stretch.
thermoception - The sense of temperature.
nociception - The sense of pain.
inflammatory pain - Pain caused by tissue damage and inflammation.
neuropathic pain - Pain caused by nerve damage or dysfunction.
congenital analgesia - A rare condition where a person cannot feel pain.
vestibular sense - The sense of balance and spatial orientation.
proprioception - The sense of body position and movement.
kinesthesia - The sense of body movement.
figure-ground - The ability to distinguish objects from their background.
proximity - The tendency to group nearby objects together.
similarity - The tendency to group similar objects together.
continuity - The tendency to perceive continuous patterns.
closure - The tendency to perceive complete figures even with missing parts.
pattern perception - The ability to recognize shapes and forms.
perceptual hypotheses - Educated guesses about sensory information based on experience.
reflexes - Automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli.
instincts - Innate, complex behaviors shared by a species.
learning - A lasting change in behavior due to experience.
associative learning - Learning that links two stimuli or a behavior and consequence.
classical conditioning - Learning through association of stimuli.
unconditioned stimulus - A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
unconditioned response - An automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.
neutral stimulus - A stimulus that initially elicits no response.
conditioned stimulus - A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a response after association.
conditioned response - A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
higher-order conditioning - When a new stimulus is associated with a conditioned stimulus.
second-order conditioning - Another term for higher-order conditioning.
acquisition - The initial learning of a conditioned response.
extinction - The weakening of a conditioned response over time.
stimulus generalization - Responding similarly to similar stimuli.
stimulus discrimination - Learning to respond only to specific stimuli.
operant conditioning - Learning through consequences of behavior.
law of effect - Behaviors followed by rewards are more likely to recur.
positive reinforcement - Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
negative reinforcement - Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
positive punishment - Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
negative punishment - Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
shaping - Reinforcing successive steps toward a desired behavior.
reinforcer - A stimulus that increases behavior likelihood.
primary reinforcer - An innately rewarding stimulus (e.g., food, water).
secondary reinforcer - A learned reward (e.g., money, praise).
continuous reinforcement schedule - Rewarding behavior every time it occurs.
partial reinforcement schedule - Rewarding behavior occasionally.
fixed interval reinforcement schedule - Rewarding behavior after a set time period.
variable interval reinforcement schedule - Rewarding behavior at unpredictable time intervals.
fixed ratio reinforcement schedule - Rewarding behavior after a set number of responses.
variable ratio reinforcement schedule - Rewarding behavior after an unpredictable number of responses.
latent learning - Learning that isn’t immediately demonstrated.
observational learning - Learning by watching others.
model - The individual being observed in observational learning.
live model - A real person demonstrating a behavior.
verbal model - A person providing instructions or descriptions.
symbolic model - A character in books, movies, or media demonstrating behavior.
vicarious reinforcement - Learning by seeing someone else rewarded.
vicarious punishment - Learning by seeing someone else punished.
cognition - The mental process of acquiring knowledge.
concepts - Mental categories for grouping similar objects or ideas.
prototype - The best example of a concept.
natural concepts - Concepts learned through experience.
artificial concepts - Concepts defined by specific rules.
schema - A framework for organizing information.
role schema - Expectations about how people in certain roles behave.
event schema - A mental script for how events unfold.
language - A system of communication using symbols and rules.
lexicon - A language’s vocabulary.
grammar - The rules for structuring language.
phoneme - The smallest unit of sound in a language.
morphemes - The smallest meaningful units in language.
semantics - The meaning of words and sentences.
syntax - The rules for sentence structure.
overgeneralization - Applying language rules too broadly.

Here are the concise definitions:

problem-solving strategy - A method for finding solutions to problems.
trial and error - Testing multiple solutions until one works.
algorithm - A step-by-step procedure guaranteeing a solution.
heuristic - A mental shortcut for quick problem-solving.
working backwards heuristic - Solving problems by starting from the goal.
availability heuristic - Judging likelihood based on easily recalled information.
mental set - Sticking to familiar problem-solving approaches.
functional fixedness - Inability to see new uses for objects.
anchoring bias - Relying too heavily on the first information encountered.
hindsight bias - The belief that past events were predictable.
representative bias - Judging based on how well something matches a prototype.
crystallized intelligence - Knowledge and skills gained through experience.
fluid intelligence - The ability to solve new problems quickly.
triarchic theory of intelligence - Sternberg’s model including analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
practical intelligence - The ability to solve real-world problems.
creative intelligence - The ability to develop new and useful ideas.
analytical intelligence - Logical reasoning and problem-solving ability.
multiple intelligences theory - Gardner’s theory of eight distinct intelligences.
linguistic intelligence - Skill in language and communication.
logical-mathematical intelligence - Ability in math, logic, and problem-solving.
musical intelligence - Sensitivity to sound patterns and rhythms.
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence - Coordination and physical movement skills.
spatial intelligence - Ability to visualize and manipulate objects.
interpersonal intelligence - Skill in understanding and interacting with others.
intrapersonal intelligence - Deep self-awareness and understanding.
naturalist intelligence - Sensitivity to nature and living things.
emotional intelligence - The ability to understand and manage emotions.
cultural intelligence - The ability to adapt to different cultural contexts.
creativity - The ability to generate original ideas.
divergent thinking - Generating multiple possible solutions.
convergent thinking - Narrowing down to the best solution.
intelligence quotient - A standardized measure of intelligence.
standardization - Ensuring consistency in test administration and scoring.
norming - Establishing performance standards for tests.
Flynn effect - The observed rise in IQ scores over time.
bell curve - A graph showing normal distribution of traits.
representative sample - A subset reflecting a larger population.
standard deviations - A measure of variation from the average.
dysgraphia - Difficulty with writing.
dyslexia - Difficulty with reading.
dyscalculia - Difficulty with math.
memory - The process of storing and retrieving information.
encoding - The process of converting information into memory.
automatic processing - Unconscious encoding of information.
effortful processing - Encoding that requires attention and effort.
semantic encoding - Encoding based on meaning.
visual encoding - Encoding based on images.
acoustic encoding - Encoding based on sound.
self-reference effect - Better memory for information related to oneself.
memory storage - The retention of encoded information.
Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory - A model of memory with sensory, short-term, and long-term stages.
sensory memory - A brief storage of sensory input.
short-term memory - Temporarily holds a small amount of information.
rehearsal - Repeating information to retain it longer.
active rehearsal - Actively repeating information to retain it.
elaborative rehearsal - Connecting new information to existing knowledge.
long-term memory - The continuous storage of information.
explicit memory - Conscious recall of facts and events.
implicit memory - Unconscious memory of skills and habits.
episodic memory - Memory of personal experiences.
semantic memory - Memory of general knowledge and facts.
procedural memory - Memory for skills and how to perform tasks.
implicit priming - Unconscious activation of related concepts.
implicit emotional conditioning - Unconscious association of emotions with stimuli.
recall - Retrieving information without cues.
recognition - Identifying information when presented with choices.
relearning - Reacquiring knowledge previously learned.
engram - The physical trace of memory in the brain.
equipotentiality hypothesis - The idea that memory can be redistributed across the brain.
amygdala in memory formation - Processes emotional memories.
hippocampus in memory formation - Critical for forming new memories.
cerebellum in memory formation - Involved in procedural memory and motor skills.
prefrontal cortex in memory formation - Involved in working memory and decision-making.
arousal theory - Strong emotions enhance memory formation.
flashbulb memory - A vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.
amnesia - Memory loss.
anterograde amnesia - Inability to form new memories.
retrograde amnesia - Inability to recall past memories.
memory construction - The process of forming new memories.
memory reconstruction - Rebuilding past memories, often with errors.
misinformation effect paradigm - The tendency for misleading information to alter memories.
false memory syndrome - A person recalls a false or distorted memory.
forgetting - The inability to retrieve stored information.
seven sins of memory - Common memory errors identified by Schacter.
transience - Memory fades over time.
absentmindedness - Lapses in attention leading to forgetting.
blocking - Inability to recall information temporarily.
misattribution - Confusing the source of information.
suggestibility - The tendency to incorporate misleading information into memory.
bias - Memory distortion based on beliefs or feelings.
persistence - Unwanted memories that keep resurfacing.
proactive interference - Older memories hinder new learning.
retroactive interference - New information disrupts old memories.
memory-enhancing strategies - Techniques to improve memory retention.
levels of processing - Deeper encoding leads to better retention.

Here are the concise definitions:

personality - An individual’s characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
humors - Ancient theory linking personality to bodily fluids.
choleric temperament - Hot-tempered, ambitious, dominant.
melancholic temperament - Thoughtful, reserved, prone to sadness.
sanguine temperament - Sociable, energetic, optimistic.
phlegmatic temperament - Calm, relaxed, reliable.
phrenology - Discredited theory linking skull shape to personality.
conscious - Thoughts and feelings we are aware of.
unconscious - Hidden mental processes influencing behavior.
Freudian slip - Unintentional speech revealing unconscious thoughts.
id - Instinct-driven part of the psyche seeking pleasure.
superego - Moral component of personality enforcing rules.
neurosis - Psychological distress resulting from unconscious conflict.
defense mechanisms - Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety.
denial - Refusing to accept reality.
displacement - Redirecting emotions to a safer target.
projection - Attributing one’s feelings to others.
rationalization - Justifying behaviors with logical but false reasons.
reaction formation - Acting opposite to true feelings.
regression - Reverting to an earlier developmental stage.
repression - Pushing distressing thoughts into the unconscious.
sublimation - Channeling impulses into acceptable activities.
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development - Childhood stages shaping personality through pleasure-seeking behaviors.
oral stage - Focus on oral gratification (birth–1 year).
anal stage - Focus on toilet training (1–3 years).
phallic stage - Focus on gender identity (3–6 years).
latency period - Sexual urges are dormant (6–12 years).
genital stage - Maturity of sexual interests (12+ years).
individual psychology - Adler’s theory emphasizing personal growth and social connection.
inferiority complex - Feeling inadequate, leading to overcompensation.
Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development - Eight stages of social and identity development.
analytical psychology - Jung’s theory emphasizing unconscious influences.
collective unconscious - Shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces.
archetypes - Universal symbols and themes in the unconscious.
extroversion - Outgoing, social personality trait.
introversion - Reserved, inward-focused personality trait.
Horney’s coping styles - Moving toward, against, or away from others.
social-cognitive theory of personality - Personality shaped by social learning and cognition.
reciprocal determinism - Personality shaped by interactions between behavior, environment, and thoughts.
self-efficacy - Belief in one’s ability to succeed.
locus of control - Perceived control over life events.
internal locus of control - Belief that personal actions shape outcomes.
external locus of control - Belief that external forces dictate outcomes.
self-regulation - Managing emotions and behaviors effectively.
Mischel’s marshmallow test - Study on delayed gratification and self-control.
self-concept - One’s perception of themselves.
ideal self - The person one aspires to be.
real self - The person one actually is.
congruence - Alignment between ideal and real self.
incongruence - Mismatch between ideal and real self.
life-history theory - Explains personality through evolutionary adaptation.
heritability - Degree to which traits are genetically inherited.
cardinal trait - A dominant personality trait defining a person.
central traits - Core characteristics influencing behavior.
secondary traits - Situational personality traits.
16PF test - Personality assessment based on 16 traits.
HEXACO model - Six-factor model of personality including honesty-humility.
culture - Shared values, beliefs, and behaviors in a group.
selective migration - People move to places aligning with their personality.
cultural-comparative approach - Comparing personality traits across cultures.
indigenous approach - Studying personality within cultural context.
combined approach - Blending cultural and universal perspectives.
self-report inventories - Personality assessments based on personal responses.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - Widely used personality test assessing psychological traits.
validity scales - Assess test accuracy and truthfulness.
reliability scales - Measure test consistency.
projective testing - Assessing personality through ambiguous stimuli.
Rorschach inkblot test - Interpretation of inkblots to assess personality.
Thematic Apperception Test - Analyzing stories created from ambiguous images.
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank - Completing sentences to reveal personality traits.
Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test - Personality test with culturally relevant images for Black individuals.
TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test - Projective test for diverse cultural groups.
social psychology - Study of how individuals interact with others.
situationism - Behavior shaped by situational factors.
dispositionism - Behavior shaped by personal traits.
internal factor - Personal characteristics influencing behavior.
fundamental attribution error - Overestimating traits and underestimating situations in others’ behavior.
halo effect - Assuming someone’s positive trait extends to other traits.
individualistic culture - Culture prioritizing individual goals.
collectivistic culture - Culture prioritizing group goals.
actor-observer bias - Attributing others' actions to personality but our own to situations.
attribution - Explanation for behavior.
self-serving bias - Taking credit for success but blaming failure on external factors.
just-world hypothesis - Belief that people get what they deserve.
social role - Expected behaviors for a given position.
social norm - Societal expectations for behavior.
script - Expected behavior sequence in a given situation.
Stanford prison experiment - Study on the effects of assigned roles on behavior.
attitude - Enduring thoughts, feelings, and behaviors toward something.
cognitive dissonance - Discomfort from conflicting beliefs and actions.
justification of effort - Valuing things more when effort is required.
persuasion - Influencing attitudes and behaviors.
Yale attitude change approach - Factors affecting persuasive communication.
elaboration likelihood model - Central vs. peripheral routes to persuasion.
central route - Persuasion through logic and reasoning.
peripheral route - Persuasion through superficial cues.
foot-in-the-door technique - Small request followed by a larger one.
confederate - Person secretly working for the researcher in a study.
conformity - Adjusting behavior to fit social norms.
Asch effect - Influence of group pressure on individual behavior.
compliance - Agreeing to requests from others.
normative social influence - Conforming to gain approval.
informational social influence - Conforming due to uncertainty.
obedience - Following authority directives.
Milgram experiment - Study on obedience to authority.
groupthink - Poor decisions from group pressure to conform.
group polarization - Groups adopt more extreme opinions.
social traps - Short-term individual gain leads to long-term group loss.
social loafing - Exerting less effort in group tasks.
deindividuation - Loss of self-awareness in groups.
prejudice - Unjustified negative attitude toward a group.
stereotype - Generalized belief about a group.
discrimination - Unfair treatment based on group membership.
racism - Discrimination based on race.
sexism - Discrimination based on gender.
ageism - Discrimination based on age.
homophobia - Discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals.
self-fulfilling prophecy - Expectations influencing behavior to confirm them.
in-group - Group one identifies with.
out-group - Group one does not identify with.
in-group bias - Favoring one’s own group.
scapegoating - Blaming a group for problems.
aggression - Behavior intended to harm others.
hostile aggression - Aggression driven by anger.
instrumental aggression - Aggression for a goal.
bullying - Repeated harmful behavior toward others.
cyberbullying - Bullying through digital platforms.
bystander effect - Less likely to help in a crowd.
diffusion of responsibility - Assuming others will take action.

prosocial behavior - Actions intended to benefit others.
altruism - Selfless concern for others’ well-being.
empathy - Ability to understand and share others’ feelings.
homophily - Tendency to associate with similar people.
reciprocity - Mutual exchange of benefits in relationships.
self-disclosure - Sharing personal information with others.
Sternberg’s triangular theory of love - Love consists of intimacy, passion, and commitment.
liking - Intimacy without passion or commitment.
infatuation - Passion without intimacy or commitment.
empty love - Commitment without intimacy or passion.
consummate love - Ideal love with intimacy, passion, and commitment.
companionate love - Intimacy and commitment without passion.
romantic love - Passion and intimacy without commitment.
fatuous love - Passion and commitment without intimacy.
social exchange theory - Relationships are maintained based on cost-benefit analysis.
stress - Psychological or physical response to challenges.
stressors - Events or conditions that cause stress.
primary appraisal - Evaluating whether a situation is a threat.
secondary appraisal - Assessing resources to cope with a stressor.

physical development - Growth and changes in the body and brain.
cognitive development - Growth in thinking, learning, and problem-solving.
psychosocial development - Changes in emotions, personality, and relationships.
normative approach to development - Studying typical age-related changes.
developmental milestones - Key skills expected at specific ages.
continuous development - Gradual, cumulative developmental changes.
discontinuous development - Distinct stages of development.
nature - Genetic influences on development.
nurture - Environmental influences on development.

Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development - Personality develops through social interactions across eight stages.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust - Infants learn to trust caregivers.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt - Toddlers develop independence.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt - Preschoolers explore and take initiative.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority - Children develop competence in skills.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion - Adolescents form a sense of self.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young adults build close relationships.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation - Middle-aged adults contribute to society.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair - Older adults reflect on their lives.

Piaget’s cognitive theory of development - Children learn through interacting with their environment.
schemata - Mental frameworks for understanding the world.
assimilation - Integrating new info into existing schemata.
accommodation - Changing schemata based on new information.
Sensorimotor stage - Learning through senses and movement (0-2 years).
Preoperational stage - Symbolic thinking, egocentrism (2-7 years).
Concrete operational stage - Logical thinking, conservation (7-11 years).
Formal operational stage - Abstract and hypothetical thinking (12+ years).

object permanence - Understanding objects exist when unseen.
conservation - Recognizing quantity stays the same despite shape changes.
egocentrism - Difficulty understanding others' perspectives.
reversibility - Ability to mentally reverse actions.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of development - Learning is guided by social and cultural influences.

Kohlberg’s moral theory of development - Moral reasoning develops in stages.
Heinz dilemma - Moral scenario used to assess moral reasoning.
Level 1: Preconventional morality - Focus on rewards and punishments.
Level 2: Conventional morality - Focus on societal norms.
Level 3: Postconventional morality - Focus on personal ethical principles.
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment - Morality based on avoiding punishment.
Stage 2: Self-interest - Morality based on personal gain.
Stage 3: Interpersonal relationships - Morality based on social approval.
Stage 4: Authority and order - Morality based on law and duty.
Stage 5: Social contract - Morality based on individual rights.
Stage 6: Universal ethics - Morality based on abstract principles.

stages of development - Key phases of physical and psychological growth.
germinal stage - First two weeks of prenatal development.
conception - Sperm fertilizes egg.
zygote - Fertilized cell before implantation.
mitosis - Cell division process in early development.
embryonic stage - Weeks 3-8, major organs form.
embryo - Developing human in early pregnancy.
placenta - Organ transferring nutrients from mother to fetus.
fetal stage - Week 9 to birth, growth and refinement.
prenatal care - Medical care during pregnancy.
teratogen - Substance causing birth defects.
critical period - Time when development is most sensitive to influences.

newborn reflexes - Automatic movements aiding survival.
early childhood physical development - Growth in body and motor skills.
motor skills - Movements requiring coordination.
fine motor skills - Small movements (e.g., grasping).
gross motor skills - Large movements (e.g., walking).
early childhood cognitive development - Growth in thinking and learning.

attachment - Emotional bond with a caregiver.
attachment theory - Early bonds shape future relationships.
strange situation procedure - Method to assess attachment style.
secure base - Caregiver as a foundation for exploration.
secure attachment - Comfort with caregiver, distress when absent.
avoidant attachment - Avoids closeness, little distress at separation.
resistant attachment - Clingy, upset when caregiver leaves.
disorganized attachment - Confused, inconsistent attachment behavior.

self-concept - Understanding of oneself.

parenting styles:
authoritative - High warmth, reasonable rules.
authoritarian - Strict, little warmth.
permissive - Few rules, high warmth.
uninvolved - Neglectful, low warmth.

temperament - Innate personality traits.

adolescence - Transition from childhood to adulthood.
adolescent physical development - Puberty and body changes.
adrenarche - Early hormonal changes in puberty.
gonadarche - Maturation of reproductive organs.
primary sexual characteristics - Organs directly involved in reproduction.
secondary sexual characteristics - Non-reproductive traits (e.g., voice changes).
menarche - First menstrual period.
spermarche - First ejaculation.

adolescent cognitive development - Growth in thinking and reasoning.
cognitive empathy - Understanding others' perspectives.

adolescent psychosocial development - Identity and relationship changes.
emerging adulthood - Transition from adolescence to adulthood.
adulthood - Period of independence and responsibility.
adult physical development - Aging and bodily changes.
adult cognitive development - Changes in thinking and memory.
adult psychosocial development - Relationships and life roles evolve.
socioemotional selectivity theory - Older adults focus on meaningful relationships.

hospice - Care for terminally ill individuals.
Kübler-Ross model of grief - Five stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance.
living will - Document outlining end-of-life medical preferences.
do not resuscitate (DNR) - Order to withhold CPR.
health care proxy - Person designated to make medical decisions.

Eustress - Positive stress that enhances motivation and performance.
Distress - Negative stress that impairs functioning.
Fight-or-flight response - The body's automatic reaction to threat, preparing for confrontation or escape.
General adaptation syndrome - The three-stage process of stress response: alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
Alarm reaction - The initial response to stress, activating the fight-or-flight mechanism.
Stage of resistance - The body's adaptation to stress, maintaining alertness and energy.
Stage of exhaustion - The depletion of resources leading to decreased stress resistance.
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis - The system regulating stress response through hormone release.
Cortisol - A stress hormone that regulates metabolism and immune responses.
Chronic stressors - Long-term, persistent stress sources.
Acute stressors - Short-term, immediate stress-inducing events.
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) - A tool measuring life stress based on significant events.
Daily hassles - Minor everyday irritations contributing to stress.
Job strain - Work-related stress due to excessive demands and low control.
Job burnout - Physical and emotional exhaustion from prolonged work stress.
Immune system - The body's defense against illness and infections.
Immunosuppression - Reduced immune system effectiveness due to stress.
Psychoneuroimmunology - The study of how psychological factors affect immunity.
Lymphocytes - White blood cells essential for immune function.
Cardiovascular disorders - Heart and blood vessel diseases linked to stress.
Type A behavior - Competitive, impatient, and high-stress personality traits.
Type B behavior - Relaxed, patient, and low-stress personality traits.
Transaction model of hostility for predicting social interactions - A framework linking hostility to social and health outcomes.
Negative affectivity - The tendency to experience negative emotions frequently.
Asthma - A chronic condition affecting airways, worsened by stress.
Coping - Strategies used to manage stress.
Problem-focused coping - Tackling stress by addressing its root cause.
Emotion-focused coping - Managing emotional reactions rather than the problem itself.
Perceived control - The belief in one’s ability to influence events.
Social support - Emotional and practical assistance from others.
Relaxation response technique - A method for reducing stress through meditation-like practices.
Biofeedback - Using electronic monitoring to control physiological functions.
Happiness - A subjective sense of well-being and life satisfaction.
Relationship between happiness and social relationships - Strong social ties contribute to greater happiness.
Relationship between happiness and education - Higher education correlates with increased happiness.
Relationship between happiness and wealth - Wealth enhances happiness up to a certain level.
Relationship between happiness and religion - Religious involvement is often linked to greater happiness.
Positive psychology - The study of strengths and virtues that enable well-being.
Positive affect - The experience of positive emotions like joy and gratitude.
Optimism - The expectation of favorable outcomes.
Flow - A state of deep immersion and engagement in an activity.
Psychological disorder - A condition causing distress or impairment in functioning.
Psychopathology - The study of psychological disorders.
Etiology - The causes or origins of disorders.
Atypical - Deviating from the norm in behavior or thought.
Harmful dysfunction - A criterion for psychological disorders involving significant impairment.
APA psychological disorder - A disorder defined by the American Psychological Association’s criteria.
Diagnosis - Identifying disorders based on symptoms.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) - A classification system for psychological disorders.
Comorbidity - The occurrence of multiple disorders in one individual.
International Classification of Diseases (ICD) - A global diagnostic system for diseases and disorders.
Supernatural - Historical explanations attributing disorders to spirits or deities.
Diathesis-stress model - A theory that disorders arise from genetic predisposition and environmental stress.
Anxiety disorders - Disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety.
Specific phobia - An irrational fear of a particular object or situation.
Acquisition of phobias - The process of developing intense fears through conditioning.
Social anxiety disorder - Extreme fear of social situations.
Safety behaviors - Actions taken to reduce anxiety in feared situations.
Panic disorder - Recurrent unexpected panic attacks.
Panic attack - Sudden intense fear with physical symptoms.
Locus coeruleus - A brain region involved in panic and anxiety responses.
Generalized anxiety disorder - Persistent, excessive worry about various aspects of life.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) - A disorder marked by intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviors.
Body dysmorphic disorder - Excessive concern over perceived body flaws.
Hoarding disorder - Difficulty discarding possessions, leading to clutter.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - Anxiety following exposure to trauma.
Mood disorders - Disorders involving significant disturbances in mood.
Depressive disorders - Persistent sadness and loss of interest.
Mania - A state of elevated mood and energy.
Major depressive disorder - Severe depression with functional impairment.
Suicidal ideation - Thoughts about taking one’s own life.
Seasonal affect disorder - Depression linked to seasonal changes.
Peripartum onset - Depression occurring around childbirth.
Dysthymia - Chronic, low-grade depression.
Bipolar disorder - Mood disorder with alternating mania and depression.
Manic episode - A period of extreme excitement and energy.
Flight of ideas - Rapid, loosely connected thoughts during mania.
Beck’s cognitive theory of depression - A theory linking depression to negative thought patterns.
Hopelessness theory - A model suggesting that hopelessness leads to depression.
Rumination - Repetitive focus on negative thoughts.
Suicide - The act of taking one’s own life.

Schizophrenia - A disorder with delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking.
Hallucination - Sensory experiences without external stimuli.
Delusions - False beliefs resistant to evidence.
Paranoid delusions - False beliefs of persecution.
Grandiose delusions - Exaggerated self-importance beliefs.
Somatic delusion - False beliefs about bodily functions.
Disorganized thinking - Incoherent or illogical thought patterns.
Disorganized motor behavior - Abnormal movements or behaviors.
Catatonic behaviors - Extreme lack of movement or agitation.
Negative symptoms - Deficits in normal functioning, such as lack of emotion.
Prodromal symptoms - Early signs of schizophrenia.
Dissociative disorders - Disorders involving disruptions in identity or memory.
Dissociative amnesia - Memory loss unrelated to injury.
Dissociative fugue - Wandering and memory loss.
Depersonalization/derealization disorder - Feeling detached from oneself or reality.
Depersonalization - A sense of detachment from oneself.
Derealization - A sense that the external world is unreal.
Dissociative identity disorder - Presence of two or more distinct identities.
Neurodevelopmental disorders - Disorders emerging in early childhood.
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - A disorder with inattention and impulsivity.
Autism spectrum disorder - A disorder affecting social communication and behavior.
Personality disorder - Enduring, maladaptive personality traits.
Cluster A personality disorders - Odd or eccentric personality disorders.
Cluster B personality disorders - Dramatic, emotional, or erratic personality disorders.
Paranoid personality disorder - Pervasive distrust of others.
Schizoid personality disorder - Detachment from social relationships.
Schizotypal personality disorder - Eccentric behavior and odd beliefs.
Antisocial personality disorder - Disregard for others' rights and social norms.
Histrionic personality disorder - Excessive emotionality and attention-seeking.
Narcissistic personality disorder - Grandiosity and need for admiration.
Borderline personality disorder - Instability in mood and relationships.
Dependent personality disorder - Excessive reliance on others.
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder - Preoccupation with order and control.