8.Alliances and shifts

Expanding the alliance systems

Eisenhower placed much greater importance on developing allies than Truman had, his strategy being to create a global network of alliances to encircle the USSR and China with.

This meant that what were US forces could be eventually replaced by those of the USA's allies, therefore reducing US military presence in West Europe but keeping containment strong.

However the USA had to provide a nuclear umbrella in return (a nuclear capacity that could be used to protect allies).

Sino-Soviet relations

The 1950 Sino-Soviet alliance was strengthened in May 1953 with the USSR agreeing to provide defence-related technology to China, and in September that year Khrushchev visited China to sign the reinforcement of Sino-Soviet links.
The USSR proceeded to provide significant economic aid and technological expertise to strengthen China's economy and security.

SEATO September 1954

In response to the close Sino-Soviet relations John Foster Dulles and brokered a defensive alliance based on Southeast Asia (Southeast Asia Collective Defence Treaty) to protect newly independent SE Asian states from Communism.

Many of SEATO's members were not Southeast Asian, and didn't share borders - instead they were spread out over a large area. Furthermore, countries that might've been deemed to be in need of SEATO protection were not members (e.g. South Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Burma).

SEATO members

Thailand, Pakistan, Britain, France, US, Australia, NZ, Philippines

The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)

Konrad Adenauer (FRG chancellor) thought the best way to strengthen his country was to align West Germany to the Western powers, which was strongly supported by the USA who believed a strengthened West Germany would prevent Communist expansion.
In November 1949, the FRG joined the Council of Europe and received the right to have consulates in other countries and to have direct representation on the Organisation of European Economic Cooperation.
By May 1952 the General Treaty abolished the statute of occupation, therefore recognising the full sovereignty of FRG.
(Adenauer agreed to renounce nuclear weapons and keep the Germany army limited in size)

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

German rearmament was underway, and in May 1955 West Germany was admitted to NATO as a member which legitimised its rearmament.

The Warsaw Pact May 1955

The USSR was prompted to further consolidate its relations with the satellite communist states of Eastern Europe, leading to the creation of the Warsaw Pact (a means of legitimising its influence in Eastern Europe, and consolidating the political and economic relationship between the USSR and its satellites).
The Warsaw Pact was presented as a collective security strategy (therefore non-threatening) but the terms of the pact suggested differently.

Warsaw Pact members

Czechoslovakia, USSR, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, East Germany, Poland, Hungary.

Truman to Eisenhower continuity

Eisenhower's administration saw much continuity from Truman's, as Eisenhower accepted much of what formed the basis of Truman's national security policy:
-USA must retain sufficient influence in Western Europe, and must have a Western defence strategy.
-USA must retain it's influence in Asia
-The containment of Soviet territorial expansion was fundamental to US security interests
-The USA must retain strong nuclear arsenal and conventional forces (non-nuclear military resources) to deter and counter Soviet opportunism.

Truman to Eisenhower change

Eisenhower rejected Truman's commitment to major expansion of the USA's conventional forces.
He also believed that containment was limited/it's effectiveness was insufficient as the basis of US foreign policy.

The New Look Policy

Rollback
Massive Retaliation
Brinkmanship

(Carried out by Dulles)

Rollback

Containment had created a stalemate, so Dulles wanted to roll back Communism to bring the Cold War to a successful end for the USA.
Soviet Communism couldn't just be contained, it's dominance had to actually be reduced world-wide.
Eisenhower recognised that this must occur through peaceful means - it's significant that Eisenhower never attempted to undermine the USSR's sphere of influence of liberate any pro-Soviet Communist states.

Massive retaliation

Containment was a strategy, according to Dulles and Eisenhower, that demanded a global reaction to Communist expansion: Nuclear weapons assumed a much greater significance as the basis for the US national security strategy under Eisenhower - so there was an increased reliance on nuclear weapons (the most cost-effective method of guaranteeing US security, and the most effective in winning the Cold War).

The NSC 162/2 report in October 1953 emphasises that the most effective way of deterring aggression was for the USA to forcefully display its nuclear superiority and determination to use nuclear weapons.

Brinkmanship

Dulles believed that the USA could even use its nuclear arsenal as a diplomatic tool, to force agreements from Communist opponents, up to the point a nuclear war could break out.
He was convinced that that the USA's ability to reach the brink of nuclear war (without it actually occurring) was essential in foreign policy and diplomacy.

French Indochina introduction

A colony of the French empire.

Initially, USA supported Indochinese independence from France, but when Ho Chi Minh’s forces in North Vietnam launched a war of independence against France USA got alarmed, especially after the Communists gained power in mainland China.

French Indochina

Communist and Nationalist forces of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam placed increased pressure on the French.

The French had suffered many casualties and deaths in their bid to hold onto Vietnam, but Eisenhower was now committed to supporting the French - he knew that Southeast Asia was particularly vulnerable to the spread of Communism (due to the domino theory).

Vietnam was geostrategically important important in the context of Southeast Asia, and it was useful for the strengthening of Japan's economy.

French defeat

Eisenhower didn't want to use conventional forces/troops to support the French, but by 1954 the US was paying 75% of the costs of the war.

Eventually Eisenhower realised that a diplomatic solution that fulfilled the objective of containment (protect Vietnam from Communist control) was his preferred choice. Eisenhower refused to commit the USA to unilateral military action so was left with little alternative to a diplomatic solution.

By April 1954 the French were at the point of military defeat at Dien Bien Phu at the hands of the Viet Minh. The situation therefore became urgent.

The Geneva Conference July 1954

In response to developments in Vietnam this conference was called, and it paved the way for a ceasefire rather than a long-term solution to the quest of Vietnam's independence as a unified state.
It was agreed that 2 zones were to be created, the 17th parallel serving as the division between the 2.
French forces were to be moved out of the Northern zone and Nationalist from the South.
However the USA and the Southern Vietnamese regime refused to sign the agreements.

South Vietnam and USA

(Ngo Dinh Diem became president of the South, and the US rapidly pledged to support his regime).
Eisenhower summed up the USA's position toward Diem as being that of supporting the existence of a pro-American independent non-communist government in Vietnam, and aiding them to eliminate an pro-communist influence.