Key Rhetorical Terms in Roman Oratory

Anaphora

A word or phrase that is repeated at the start of neighbouring clauses for emphatic effect e.g. “Accept the cause of the law-courts. Accept the cause of severity… Accept the cause of…”

Apostrophe

A direct address to a third party to break up the narrative voice e.g. “O Judges”

Asyndeton

A lack of conjunctions in a list to give the description or point intensity

Characterisation

The way in which someone or something is described by pointing to their qualities or character traits - within Roman oratory, speakers often characterised themselves as well as others

Exclamation

A sudden switch from direct statement to exclamation to accentuate astonishment or surprise or indignation e.g. “by Hercules” or “by the immoral gods”

Exemplum

Roman orators often employed historical and literary parallels, which looked back to Rome’s history and her mythology to make a comparison and so often point to the mos maiorum

Hyperbole (aka Exaggeration)

Over the top claims, actions or images employed for rhetorical effect - it is often employed alongside other rhetorical methods such as superlatives, anaphoras, asyndetons, and tricolons to intensify the exaggeration

Invective

Direct personal attacks against an individual or a group - this is a common method employed by Cicero to vilify his opponents e.g. Verres, Catiline, Clodius and Mark Antony

Irony/Sarcasm

Use of words to express a meaning other than the literal meaning, often the complete opposite - this can be added to the common use of wit and humour to persuade the orator’s audience

Metaphor

From the Greek ‘carrying over’; one thing is described as another, thus carrying over its association - metaphors are often employed to communicate symbolism

Pathos

A method aimed at evoking sympathy in the audience

Polysyndeton

The use of unnecessarily large number of conjunctions in a list to emphasise the number of things being listed

Praeteritio

Where the speaker states that he or she will not mention something and in doing so they deliberately mention it in order to put that idea into the mind of the audience e.g. “to say northing of the dishonours and disgraces of his youth…”

Rhetoric

Literally meaning “the art of persuasion” - rhetoric was seen as the fundamental basis for public speaking, and consequently essential for poltiics and the law

Rhetorical Question

Is a question that someone asks without expecting an answer; the question might not have an answer, or it might have an obvious answer - often rhetorical questions were asked by Roman orators to emphasise a point

Simile

A direct comparison employing like or as, often used to make a description more emphatic or vivid e.g. “Roman citizens were tortured and killes like slaves”

Superlative

An adjective or adverb expressing the highest or a very high degree of a quality e.g. “the most fortified harbours” and “the holiest rites”

Tricolon

A series of three clearly defined words, phrases or (more commonly) clauses - an ascending tricolon is one in which each word, phrase or clause is successively more powerful e.g. “I came, I saw, I conquered (veni, vidi, vici")”, a tricolon which Julius Caesar employed in a report to the Senate about the Battle of Zela in 47 BC