Studied by 1 personNeuron
are individual nerve cells → make up our entire nervous system
Dendrites
rootlike parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body
grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons
Cell body
contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life
Axon
wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body
Myelin sheath
a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses
Terminal buttons
the branches end of the axon that contain neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate
fit into receptor sites on the dendrites of neurons like a key fits into a lock
Synapse
the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron
Threshold
a state when enough neurotransmitters are received
Action potential
is electric message firing
Neurons generate and conduct these signals along their processes in order to transmit them to the target tissues.
Upon stimulation, they will either be stimulated, inhibited, or modulated in some way.
All-or-none principal
Neuron either fires completely or it does not fire → this is called the …
Neural firing
transmits electrical signals through the body to carry information to other parts of the body and the brain
Excitatory neurotransmitters
promotes the generation of an electrical signal called an action potential in the receiving neuron
Examples: glutamate, epinephrine and norepinephrine
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
block or prevent the chemical message from being passed along any farther
Example: GABA and glycine
Acetylcholine
is an organic compound that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter.
Dopamine
is a neuromodulatory molecule that plays several important roles in cells.
is most notably involved in helping us feel pleasure as part of the brain's reward system
Endorphins
are the body's natural painkillers
are released when your body feels pain or stress
Serotonin
GABA
is an inhibitory neurotransmitter
It lessens a nerve cell's ability to receive, create or send chemical messages to other nerve cells.
Glutamate
is the most abundant neurotransmitter in your brain
is an excitatory neurotransmitter
Norepinephrine
is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone.
As a neurotransmitter, it’s a chemical messenger that helps transmit nerve signals across nerve endings to another nerve cell, muscle cell or gland cell.
As a hormone, it’s released by your adrenal glands, which are hat-shaped glands that sit on top of each kidney.
Afferent neurons
take information from the senses to the brain
Efferent neurons
take information from the brain to the rest of the body
Central nervous system
consists of out brain and spinal cord
Spinal Cord
is the tube-like structure that runs from your brain to your lower back.
Peripheral nervous system
consists of all the other nerves in your body
Somatic nervous system
controls our voluntary muscle movements
Autonomic nervous system
controls the automatic functions of our body
Sympathetic nervous system
mobilizes our body to respond to stress
carries messages to the control system of the organs, glands, and muscles that direct our body’s response to stress
is the alert system of our body
speeds up some functions (heart rate, blood pressure & respiration) but conserves resources needed for a quick response
Parasympathetic nervous system
carries messages to the stress response system that causes our body to slow down after a stress response
like a brake pedal that slows down the body’s autonomic nervous system
Lesioning
is the removal or destruction of part of the brain
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
is a test that measures electrical activity in the brain
Computerized axial tomography (CT)
is a sophisticated X-ray
use several X-ray cameras that rotate around the brain and combine all the pictures into a detailed three-dimensional picture of the brain’s structure
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
use magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material → more detailed images
Positron emission tomography (PET)
measures how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain are using (e.g. glucose, neurotransmitter,…)
Functional MRI (fMRI)
is a new technology that combines elements of the MRI and PET scans
can show details of brain structure with in4 about blood flow in the brain, typing brain structure to brain activity during cognitive task
Hindbrain
consists of structures in the top part of the spinal cord
controls the basic biological functions that keep us alive
Medulla
is involved in the control of our blood pressure, heart rate and breathing
Pons
connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain
involved in the control of facial expressions
Cerebellum
means little brain
coordinates some habitual muscle movements
Midbrain
is located just above the spinal cord but still below the fore brain
very small, controls some very important functions
coordinates simple movements with sensory information
Reticular formation
a netlike collection of cells throughout the midbrain that controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention.
Forebrain
control what we think of as thought and reason
very large
Thalamus
is located on top of the brain stem
responsible for receiving the sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending them to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain
Hypothalamus
is a small structure right next to the thalamus
controls several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst and the endocrine system
Limbic system
support a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, long-term memory, and olfaction
Cerebral cortex
is the outer layer of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain in humans and other mammals.
Left hemisphere
gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the right half of the body
Right hemisphere
gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the left half of the body
Brain lateralization
is the relegation of cognitive processes to different regions in the brain
Ex: Language is generally lateralized to the left hemisphere, though there are also language-related processes in the right hemisphere as well.
Corpus callosum
the nerve bundle that connects the two hemispheres
Association area
any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information and controlling muscle movements
Frontal lobes
located directly behind the forehead
is the largest lobe in the brain
contain motor cortex
is responsible for high-cognitive functions like self-control, memory, and emotional expression.
Broca’s area
in left hemisphere
an area of the lateral frontal lobe in the dominant hemisphere concerned with the production of speech
Wernicke’s area
is associated with the understanding of spoken and written language
Motor cortex
is the region of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements
Parietal lobes
located behind the frontal lobe but still on the top of the brain
contain the sensory cortex. which located right behind the motor cortex in the frontal lobe
Sensory cortex
a broad term for all of the areas in a brain that lets humans process sensory input
Occipital lobes
at the very back of our brain, farthest from our eye
Major function: interpret messages from our eyes in our visual cortex
Temporal lobes
process sound sensed by our ears (auditory cortices)
the second language is located in this lobe
Brain plasticity
other parts of the brain can adapt themselves to perform other functions id needed
if one part of the brain is damaged, dendrites might be able to make new connections in another part of the brain that would be able to take over the functions usually performed by the damaged part
Endocrine system
is a system of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies
Adrenal glands
are small, triangular-shaped glands located on top of both kidneys
produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions
Monozygotic twins
Twins conceived from one egg and one sperm
The biological mechanisms that prompt the single fertilised egg to split in two remain a mystery.
Roger Sperry
won the Nobel Prize in 1981 for his breakthrough discoveries on functional specialisation of the hemispheres
Paul Broca
was a surgeon who was closely associated with the development of modern physical anthropology in France and whose study of brain lesions contributed significantly to understanding the origins of aphasia, the loss or impairment of the ability to form or articulate words.
Michael Gazzaniga
is a major founder of the field of cognitive neuroscience
Like the earlier field of cognitive science, which borrowed much from behaviorism, cognitive neuroscience has a strong deterministic flavor.
Carl Wernicke
was a German neurologist who related nerve diseases to specific areas of the brain
Thomas Bouchard
is an American psychologist known for his behavioral genetics studies of twins raised apart
Amygdala
is vital to our experiences of emotion
Hippocampus
is vital to our memory system
Memories are processed through this area and then sent to other locations in the cerebral cortex for permanent storage
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