Unit 0

Empirical Evidence

Information acquired by observation or experimentation; makes psychology a science.

Perspectives

Ways of understanding and explaining human behavior & mental processes.

Psychology

Scientific study of mental process & behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Taking principles of evolution (such as natural selection), applying them to psychological phenomena.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Behaviors based on past experiences left in childhood or the unconscious mind; crucial in shaping adult personality.

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on observable & learned behaviors, humans/animals are controlled by their environment and how they are conditioning is based off rewards/punishments.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on internal processes (memory, intelligence, perception, problem-solving, etc) which influences behavior.

Sociocultural Perspective

Society and culture shapes behavior and cognition, social customs, beliefs, values, etc shapes a person’s identity and reality.

Biopsychology

Influence of genetics and brain chemistry on thinking/behavior, physical and biological processes and evolves over time.

Biopsychosocial

Combining multiple approaches, links between genetics and environments. (Biological, Psychological, and socio-cultural influences).

Peer Reviewers

Experts in the same field who evaluate a research study before published.

Theory

Explains or predicts behaviors/events by organizing observations.

Hypothesis

Testable predictions often implied by theories (If… then…)

Falsifiability

Theory/hypotheses that can be tested wrong. (Must have one for a claim to be scientifically valid.)

Operational

Exact description of how a researcher measures or manipulates a variable in a study

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study with different situations/participants.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of an individual or group.

Naturalistic Observation

Recording behavior in a natural setting, no changes.

Survey

Recording self-reported behaviors of a group; commonly through questioning.

Social Desirability Bias

People responding in way sthey presume a researcher expects.

Self Report Bias

When people report their behavior inaccurately.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Random Bias

Fairly represents a population because each person has a chance of equal inclusion.

Population

All those in a group being studied where samples can be drawn.

5 Research Designs

Experiment, Case Study, Naturalistic Observation, Correlational Study, & Meta-Analysis.

Descriptive Research

Describing research/analysis

Correlational Research

Searching for relationships between variables (no cause & effect)

Experimental Research

Manipulating variables in a situation

Basic Research

Increasing scientific knowledge base (active research)

Applied Research

Research to find solutions to certain problems.

Quantitative Data

Numerical type of data & helps us understand patterns precisely.

Qualitative Data

Non-numerical; descriptive & gives deep insight on topics.

Cognitive Bias

Can distort our thinking and lead to incorrect conclusions.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to look for or notice information that supports what you already believe.

Hindsight Bias

People believe that they knew something was going to happen after it has already happened even if they didn’t actually predict it.

Overconfidence

When people have too much faith in their own judgements.

What prevents cognitive bias?

Empirical Evidence

Reliability

When a test produces consistent results when under similar conditions.

Validity

When a test meets the concept it’s designed to measure.

R.R.R

Repeated, Reliable Results

V.E.T

Valid Evidence, True

APA

American Psychological Association—Leading professional organization dedicated to the field of psychology.

Correlation

Extent of how two factors vary together.

Correlation Coefficient

Statistical index of the relationship between two things (-1.00 —> +1.00)

Variable

Anything that can vary; possible to measure.

Scatterplot

Graphed cluster of dots—amount/distance suggests the strength and direction.

Weak Correlation

When dots on a scatterplot are more spread out.

Strong Correlation

When dots on a scatterplot are tightly clustered around the line.

Illusory Correlation

Believing two things are related when they’re not.

Experiment

Where an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe mental behaviors.

Experimental Group

Group exposed to change, the first version.

Control Group

Group with no change, servers as comparison.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to experimental or control groups.

Double-blind procedure

Where participants/researchers don’t know who is in the control or experimental group.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations.

Independent Variable

The manipulated variable.

Dependent Variable

The measurable outcome after the independent variable was changed.

Confounding Variable

A non-studied variable that might’ve influenced a study’s results.

Validity

The experiment will test on what it’s supposed to test.

Institutional Review Board (IRBs)

Committee responsible for reviewing research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met and protect participants.

Safeguard Human Research Participant (Guidelines)

Informed Consent, Protection from Harm, Debriefing, Right to Withdraw, and Confidential

Protect Participants from Harm

Emphasizes researches to minimize risks and ensure well-being of participants throughout the process; carefully assess potential risks with study procedures.

Informed Consent

Which individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being provided with information about the study.

Informed Assent

Similar to informed consent but applied through underage people (mentally and/or physically).

Confidentiality

Requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information with the utmost confidentiality.

Deception

May involve misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of the study.

Confderates

People a part of a research study but are actually working with the researcher and is aware of the study’s purpose.

Debriefing

Provides participants about the study’s true nature, purpose and procedures after their participation.

Statistics

Large amount of data that’s collected in research studies; a tool to make sense of data into organizable information.

Descriptive Statistics

Refers to numerical measures used to summarize and describe characteristics of a data set

Inferential Stats-Generalization

Using data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population

Measures of Central Tendency

Provides single value representing the “center” or typical value of a distribution

The Three Measures of Central Tendency

Median, Mean & Mode

Median

Representing the middle value of a data set when the values are in ascending or descending order.

Mean

Representing the average value of a set of data

How do you calculate the mean?

Add up all the values and divide the sum by total # of values.

Mode

Representing the most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Unimodal

A set with one mode.

Multimodal

A set with multiple modes.

No Modes

If all values occurr with the same frequency. (No repeating #’s)

Range

Represents the difference between the highest and loewst values in a data set.

How can you calculate range in a data set?

Highest Value subtracted by the Lowest Value

Normal Curve or Bell Curve

A symmetrical distribution where most scores are near the average, and fewer scores are farther from the average.

Left Side of the Bell Curve

Below Average

Right Side of the Bell Curve

Above Average

Mean Regression

When extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again; happens because those scores are often due to temporary factors.

Positive Skew

Majority of the data clusters on the left side, with the tail extending to the right; suggests unusually high values.

Negative Skew

Majority of the data clusters on the right side, the tail extending toward the left.

Standard Deviation

A way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group

Small Standard Deviation

Most scores are close to the average (48,49,50,51,52…)

Large Standard Deviation

Most scores are more spread out. (50,81,90,92,100)

Percentile Rank

Statistical measure indicating score percentages of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a certain value.

Bimodal Distribution

ata distribution which there are two distinct peaks/high points on a histogram or frequency distribution graph. (Data is more evenly distributed & multimodal)

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that observed results in a research study aren’t due to chance. (Not randomized.)

Statistical significance is typically assessed using statistical tests such as t-tests is represented by a _______

P-Value

P-Value < .05

Statistically Significant Difference

P-Value > .05

No Statistically Significant Difference

Large Effect Size

A substantial difference or relationship; independent made a huge impact.

Small Effect Size

A minimal difference or relationship; limited effect on dependent variable

Meta-Analysis

Combines data from various studies to draw conclusions.