unit 1

Evolutionary Perspective

Evolutionary Perspective

A way of looking at human behavior that emphasizes the role of natural selection and survival of the fittest in shaping our actions.

Natural Selection

A process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Nature

Refers to the genetic or hereditary influences on behavior and traits.

Nurture

Refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior and traits after conception.

Twin Studies

Research that compares the similarities between identical and fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetics versus environment.

Adoption Studies

Studies that compare adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents to understand genetic and environmental influences.

Family Studies

Research that examines behavioral patterns or genetic markers across generations within families.

Heredity

The passing on of physical or mental traits genetically from one generation to another.

Genetic Predisposition

The increased likelihood of developing a particular disease or behavior based on a person's genetic makeup.

Eugenics

A controversial historical movement aimed at improving the genetic composition of the human race.

Cerebral Cortex

The outermost layer of the brain involved in high-level functions such as thought, language, and memory.

Association Areas

Parts of the brain that integrate different types of information from the senses and link it with stored memories.

Lobes of the Brain

Regions of the brain differentiated by their functions, including frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.

Frontal Lobes

Areas of the brain involved in complex processes like reasoning, planning, and emotion.

Prefrontal Cortex

The part of the frontal lobes directly behind the forehead, involved in decision-making and self-control.

Executive Functioning

Higher-level cognitive processes including thinking, planning, and problem-solving.

Motor Cortex

The part of the brain that controls voluntary movements.

Parietal Lobes

Areas of the brain that process sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain.

Somatosensory Cortex

A part of the parietal lobes that processes sensory input from various body areas.

Occipital Lobes

The part of the brain that processes visual information.

Temporal Lobes

Areas of the brain involved in processing auditory information and encoding memory.

Corpus Callosum

A large band of neural fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres and allows communication between them.

Brainstem

The central trunk of the brain continuing downward to form the spinal cord.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions like heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Activating System

A network of neurons in the brainstem that plays a role in waking and sleep.

Cerebellum

A part of the brain at the back of the skull that coordinates and regulates muscular activity.

Limbic System

A complex system of nerves and networks in the brain, controlling basic emotions and drives.

Reward Center

Brain regions that regulate the experience of pleasure, particularly related to survival and reward.

Thalamus

A structure deep within the brain that relays sensory signals to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A small region at the base of the brain that directs several functions, including temperature regulation and energy maintenance.

Pituitary Gland

A gland at the base of the brain that controls growth and development.

Hippocampus

A part of the limbic system involved in learning and memory.

Amygdala

A structure in the limbic system involved in emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Nervous System

The network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.

Central Nervous System

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

All the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, like breathing and the heartbeat.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for rapid action in emergencies.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy.

Somatic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system associated with voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles.

Neurons

The basic working units of the brain, specialized cells that transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Reflex Arc

A neural pathway that controls a reflex action.

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other by sending electrical or chemical signals.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The rule that neurons are either on or off.

Depolarization

A change in a cell's membrane potential, making it more positive.

Refractory Period

A period immediately following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation.

Resting Potential

The state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

A disease in which the immune system eats away at the protective covering of nerves.

Myasthenia Gravis

A chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals transmitting information across synapses to dendrites of receiving neurons.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers increasing the likelihood of neuron firing an action potential.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter strengthening synaptic connections between neurons.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers decreasing the likelihood of neuron firing an action potential.

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter influencing movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter affecting mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters influencing the perception of pain or pleasure.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain messages to the brain.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter enabling learning, memory, and triggering muscle contraction.

Hormones

Chemicals produced by glands regulating activities of different body cells.

Ghrelin

A hormone stimulating appetite, increasing food intake, and promoting fat storage.

Leptin

A hormone helping regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Melatonin

A hormone regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Oxytocin

A hormone acting as a neurotransmitter, influencing social behavior and emotion.

Adrenaline

A hormone released in response to physical or mental stress.

Norepinephrine

A hormone and neurotransmitter involved in arousal and fight-or-flight response.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt due to experience.

Split Brain Research

Studies on patients with severed corpus callosum to understand brain hemisphere functions.

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

Arrangement where the brain's right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and vice versa.

Hemispheric Specialization

Control of distinct functions by the brain's right and left hemispheres.

Linguistic Processing

Brain functions involved in understanding and producing language.

Broca's Area

Frontal lobe area directing muscle movements involved in speech.

Broca's Aphasia

Condition from damage to Broca's area causing impaired speaking and writing.

Opioids

A class of drugs including heroin and prescription pain relievers.

Heroin

An opioid drug made from morphine, derived from opium poppy plants.

Tolerance

Diminishing drug effect with regular use, necessitating larger doses.

Addiction

Compulsive craving for drugs or behaviors despite adverse consequences.

Withdrawal

Symptoms post cessation of drug intake in addicted individuals.

Sensation

Reception and representation of stimulus energies by sensory receptors.

Transduction

Conversion of stimulus energies into neural impulses in sensation.

Perception

Organization and interpretation of sensory information for object recognition.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulus energy to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Just-noticeable Difference

Smallest difference in stimulus intensity detectable by a sense.

Sensory Adaptation

Decrease in sensitivity to constant stimulation levels.

Weber's Law

Principle that stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for detection.

Synesthesia

Condition where one sense is perceived as if by additional senses.

Retina

Light-sensitive eye surface with rods, cones, and neural processing layers.

Blind Spot

Point where optic nerve exits the eye, lacking receptor cells.

Visual Nerve

Nerve transmitting neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Lens

Transparent eye structure behind the pupil, aiding image focus.

Accommodation

Process of lens shape change for focusing on near or far objects.

Nearsightedness

Clear vision for close objects but blurry for distant ones.

Farsightedness

Clear vision for distant objects but blurry for close ones.