Anatomy Exam 1

anatomy

to cut up, dissect

physiology

study of function

What are the levels of anatomy?

1) Chemical level, 2) cellular level, 3) tissue level, 4) organ level, 5) system level, 6) organismal level

What are the major body cavities?

Dorsal: 1) cranial, 2) vertebral
Ventral: 1) thoracic cavity - superior mediastinum, pleural cavity, pericardial cavity, diaphragm, 2) abdominal cavity, 3) abdominopelvic cavity, 4) pelvic cavity

Name all of the regions of the body

Cephalic- 1) frontal, 2) orbital, 3) nasal, 4) oral, 5) buccal, 6) mental, 7) otic
Cervical
Thoracic- 1) sternal, 2) axillary, 3) mammary
Abdominal- 1) umbilical
Pelvic- 1) inguinal
Pubic
Back- 1) scapular, 2) vertebral, 3) lumbar, 4) sacral, 5) gluteal, 6) perineal
Upper limb- 1) acromial, 2) brachial, 3) olecranal, 4) antecubital, 5) antebrachial, 6) carpal
Manus- 1) palmar, 2) pollex, 3) digital
Lower limb- 1) coxal, 2) femoral, 3) patellar, 4) popliteal, 5) crural, 6) sural, 7) fibular
Pedal- 1) plantar, 2) tarsal, 3) calcaneal, 4) digital, 5) hallux

Name the regions of the thoracic cavity (name some organs too)

From top to bottom and from right to left
1) right hypochondriac, 2) epigastric, 3) left hypochondriac
4) right lumbar, 5) umbilical, 6) left lumbar
7) right pelvic, 8) Hypogastric, 9) left pelvic

What does it mean to be alive?

1) metabolism, 2) movement, 3) homeostasis, 4) excretion, 5) growth and reproduction, 6) digestion, 7) responsiveness or acclimatization (irritability and natural selection)

How do you maintain human life?

1) sensory input -\> 2) integration (in brain) -\> 3) motor output

Describe the process of homeostasis when a variable occurs

1) stimulus produces a change in variable or imbalance, 2) change detected by receptor, 3) input: info sent along afferent pathway to control center, 4) output: info sent along efferent pathway to effector, 5) response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis

Negative feedback

change moves in opposite direction to stop something (often regulatory,

Positive feedback

moves in the same direction, produces excess, continues process ex: scabbing, milk production

Integumentary system

1) consists of hair, nails, skin, cutaneous sense organs and glands, 2) produces viatmin d, 3) regulates body temp, 4) excretes salt and urea, 5) protects deeper organs

skeletal system

1) bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and joints, 2) mineral storage, 3) support and protect, 4) levers for muscles, 5) blood cell formation

Muscular system

1) generate heat, 2) contract or shorten for locomotion, grip, and facial expression

Nervous system

1) brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors, 2) detect changes in internal and external environment and respond, 3) maintain homeostasis

Endocrine system

1) pituitary, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal glands, ovaries, testes, pancreas, 2) maintains homeostasis, 3) growth and development, 4) produces hormones

Cardiovascular system

1) heart and blood vessels, 2) transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste, ions, hormones in blood

Lymphatic system

1) lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, 2) returns leaked fluid to blood, 3) cleans blood, 4) immune response

Respiratory system

1) nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, 2) keeps blood oxygenated, 3) contributes to acid-base balance of blood via acid-bicarbonate buffer system

Digestive system

1) oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, teeth, salivary glands, liver, and pancreas, 2) breaks down food for nutrients

urinary system

1) kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, 2) filters blood and gets rid of nitrogen containing wastes, 3) maintains water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of blood

Reproductive systems

provides gametes and for women houses fetus and produces milk

Name the various parts of the cell

1) Ribosomes, 2) ER, 3) Golgi, 4) lysosomes, 5) peroxisomes, 6) mitochondria, 7) centrioles, 8) microfilaments, 9) intermediate filaments, 10) microtubules, 11) nucleus, 12) nucleolus, 13) microvilli, 14) plasma membrane

Ribosomes

1) free in cytosol and on rough ER, 2) manufacture proteins

Cell membrane

1) barrier to outside, 2) polar double phospholipid bilayer with hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads

Mitochondria

1) ATP synthesis, 2) DNA and RNA self replicate, 3) dynamic shape

Smooth ER

1) synthesize lipids and steroids, 2) drug detox for hormones

Rough ER

1) synthesizes phospholipids and cholesterol

Golgi

1) packages and modifies proteins, 2) vesicles, 3) close to nucleus

Lysosome

1) contain digestive enzymes, 2) digest old cells, 3) suicide sacs

Peroxisomes

1) oxidase enzymes to detoxify

Microfilaments

1) within microvilli, 2) cellular movements, 3) muscle contraction

Intermediate filaments

1) resist mechanical forces, 2) within cytosol of cell

Microtubules

1) support cells, 2) form centrioles, 3) with cytosol

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Microvilli

1) small projections of cell membrane, 2) increase surface area of cell for absorption

Cilia

1) 9 pairs of microtubules, 2) beat rhythmically for cell movement of moving stuff past cells

Flagella

used for movements

nucleus

1) control center of cell, 2) contains nucleoplasm and chromatin, 3) surrounded by nuclear envelope

Nucleolus

manufactures ribosomes

Diffusion

movements of particles from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration (passive)

Osmosis

movement of water across membrane to highest solute concentration (passive and active)

hypotonic

water has higher concentration than solute, lower

hypertonic

water has lower concentration than solute, higher

isotonic

Water and solute have same concentration

Simple diffusion

nonpolar and lipid-soluble substances diffuse directly through lipid bilayer or through channel protein

Facilitated Diffusion

transport of glucose, amino acids, and ions that bind to carrier proteins or pass through channel protein

Prophase

1) chromosomes condense, 2) spindle apparatus forms, 3) nuclear membrane fragements

Metaphase

Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate

Anaphase

sister chromatids separate to opposite poles

Telophase

Nuclear membranes around nuclei

Cytokinesis

division of cytoplasm

G1

cells resume function

S phase

DNA replication

G2

cell checks for complete and accurate DNA replication

Mitosis

Results in 2 genetically identical diploid somatic cells

Tight Junctions

strands of transmembrane proteins

Adherents Junctions

adhesion belt made of actin with plaques holding cells together

Desmosomes

plaques, keratin, between walls of cells

Hemidesmosomes

basement membrane adhesion

Gap junctions

2 Adjacent plasma membranes held by proteins called connexins

What are the major characteristics of epithelium?

1) apical, lateral, and basal surfaces, 2) bound by cell junctions in sheets, 3) supported by connective tissues beneath it, 4) avascular but innervated, 5) can regenerate if they have enough nutrients

What are the two types of Epithelial tissue?

Membranous and glandular

Simple Squamous Epithelium

What: single layer

Function: 1) diffusion 2) filtration 3) secretion

Where: lining of ventral body cavity, air sacs of lungs, linings of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

What: single layer of cube cells

Functions: 1) secretion , 2) absorption

Where: ducts of small glands, ovary surface

Simple columnar epithelium

What: single layer or tall cells with oval nuclei and goblet cells, rarely ciliated

Function: 1) secretion, 2) absorption, 3) ciliated is for movement of mucus

Where: 1) digestive tract, 2) excretory ducts, 3) ciliated in uterine tubes

Pseudostratified Columnar epithelium

What: single layer but with differing placement of nuclei, sometimes ciliated

Function: 1) secretions

Where: 1) ducts of large glands, 2) non ciliated in male genitalia to move sperm, 3) ciliated in trachea

Stratified Squamous epithelium

What: many layers of squamous sheets, sometimes keratinized

Functions: 1) protection

Where: Nonkeratinized- moist linings, Keratinized- epidermis

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

What: 2+ layers of cuboidal

Functions: Protection

Where: Ducts of exocrine glands like mammary and salivary

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

What: Layers of columnar with basal layer looking cuboidal, rare

Function: 1) protection and 2) secretion

Where: male urethra and large ducts of some glands

Transitional Epithelium

What: looks like stratified squamous and columnar

Function: stretch

Where: lines ureters, bladder, and part of urethra

Glandular Epithelium

Form glands to secrete into ducts or directly into blood

Endocrine Glands

into blood like hormones

Exocrine Glands

Out, secretes into ducts that lead to surface of skin (sebaceous, salivary, sweat, mucus)

What are the types of exocrine glands?

1) simple tubular, 2) simple branched tubular, 3) simple coiled tubular, 4) simple acinar, 5) simple branched acinar, 6) compound tubular, 7) compound acinar, 8) compound tubuloacinar

Simple Exocrine Gland

duct does not branch

Compound Exocrine gland

duct branches

Merocrine

secretion synthesized on rough ER ribosomes and packaged by golgi then released in vesicles (salivary glands and pancreas)

Apocrine

secretion on apical surface and pinches off (ex: mammary)

Holocrine

Secretion in cytosol and as matures it ruptures and breaks off as secretion product (ex: sebaceous)

What tissue is the most abundant and widely dispersed in the body?

Connective Tissue

What are the major characteristics of Connective tissue?

1) all come from mesenchyme cells, 2) all vascular, 3) extracellular matrix between cells

Fibroblasts

large, flat cells that secrete fibers and ground substance

Macrophages

destroy bacteria and cells debris by phagocytosis

Plasma Cell

secrete antibodies that attack and neutralize foreign substances

Mast Cells

abundant along blood vessels, produce histamine which dilates small blood vessels during inflammation

Adipocytes

fat cells that store fats that live below skin and around organs

Eosinophils

white blood cells that migrate to site of infection and allergic responses

Neutrophils

white blood cells that migrate to site of infection that destroys microbes via phagocytosis

Elastic fibers

stretchable, strong fibers found in skin, blood vessels, and lung tissue

Collagen fibers

strong bundles of collagen protein

What is the most abundant protein in the body?

collagen

reticular fibers

collagen and glycoproteins that support blood vessels walls and form a branching network

Ground Substance

Water and organic molecules that support and bind cells and fibers; have glycosaminoglycans and hyaluronic acid

Mesenchyme

What: embryonic connective tissue that has star-shaped cells

Function: gives rise to all other connective tissues

Where: embryo

Mucoid Tissue

widely scattered fibroblasts in substance that is only in the umbilical cord of a fetus for support

Areolar Connective Tissue (Loose Mature)

What: gel-like matrix with all 3 fibers , macrophages, and fibroblasts

Function: 1) wraps and cushions, 2) strength, 3) elasticity

Where: anywhere epithelium is

Adipose Tissue (Loose)

What: close adipocytes with nucleus pushed to side

Function: 1) provides fat reserve, 2) support, 3) protect, 4) insulate

Where: under skin in hypodermis, breasts, in abdomen, yellow bone marrow, anywhere areolar is

Reticular Connective Tissue (loose)

What: network of reticular fibers that cells lie on

Function: Support other cell types in connective tissue

Where: stroma of lymph organs like spleen, lymph nodes

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

What: irregular collagen fibers with fibroblasts

Function: withstand tension from any direction

Where: joints, dermis of skin

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

What: parallel collagen fibers with fibroblasts

Function: 1) attaches muscles, 2) attaches bones, 3) withstands pulling force in one direction

Where: tendons and ligaments