Chapter 13- Reformations and Religious Wars: Key Concepts and Historical Impact (1500-1600)

Reformation

A movement for religious reform that led to the establishment of Protestant churches.

Christian humanists

Educated individuals in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries who urged reform primarily through educational and social change.

Martin Luther

An obscure professor whose ideas found a ready audience and led to a break with the Catholic Church in central Europe and Scandinavia.

Printing press

A new technology that Martin Luther used to publish his ideas, facilitating the spread of Protestantism.

Catholic Reformation

The response of the Catholic Church to Protestant reform movements, involving reforms and counter-reforms.

Religious violence

Conflicts arising from religious differences, including riots, wars, and witch-hunts.

Babylonian Captivity

A period in the 14th century when the popes resided in Avignon, which damaged the prestige of the church.

Great Schism

The division in the Catholic Church during the late 14th and early 15th centuries, which further harmed the church's reputation.

Papal conflict with Frederick II

A historical conflict that contributed to the decline in prestige of church leaders.

Processions

Public religious ceremonies in which villagers participated to honor local saints.

Pilgrimages

Journeys made by merchants and guild members to significant religious sites, such as Saint Peter's in Rome.

Artistic patronage

The support given by the popes in the fifteenth century to artists, which was criticized for diverting focus from spiritual matters.

Social change

The transformation of societal structures and norms, often linked to the spread of Protestant ideas.

Wealth and power of the church

Criticism directed at the church for its accumulation of wealth and influence, leading to calls for reform.

Grievances with the church

Complaints from various social groups, including educated laypeople and artisans, regarding church practices.

Religious observances

External practices indicating the piety of Europeans in the early sixteenth century.

Wills and religious foundations

The practice of individuals remembering the church in their wills and contributing to religious causes.

Dissatisfaction with the church

A widespread sentiment among Europeans that led to the Reformation.

Social groups

Different segments of society, including villagers, artisans, and church officials, who were involved in the call for reform.

French religious wars

Conflicts that arose in France following the Reformation, influenced by religious divisions.

Educational change

Reforms aimed at improving education as a means of promoting religious reform.

Institutional structures

The organizational frameworks of the church that were criticized and called for reform.

Theological changes

Alterations in the fundamental beliefs and teachings of the church that were deemed necessary by reformers.

Papal Conflict

The struggle between the papacy and the German emperor Frederick II in the thirteenth century.

Papal Tax Collection

Methods used by the papacy to collect taxes, which faced criticism both orally and in print.

Anticlericalism

Opposition to the clergy, particularly prevalent in the early sixteenth century.

Clerical Immorality

The behavior of clergy members who engaged in activities such as drunkenness and neglecting celibacy.

Clerical Ignorance

The lack of education among priests, leading them to recite Latin Mass without understanding.

Clerical Pluralism

The practice of holding multiple church offices simultaneously.

Absenteeism

The failure of clergy to perform their spiritual duties while collecting revenues from multiple benefices.

Benefices

Church offices that clergy held, often without fulfilling their responsibilities.

Papal Curia

The administrative apparatus of the Holy See, the pope's court in Rome.

Nationalistic Resentment

Feelings of discontent towards the church hierarchy, viewed as foreign, particularly in Germany.

Clerical Privileges

Exemptions granted to clergy from civic responsibilities, such as taxes and defense.

Urban Property

Large amounts of property held by religious orders in urban areas, sometimes up to one-third of the city.

University of Erfurt

The institution where Martin Luther earned a master's degree with distinction.

Lay Control

The influence of non-clerical individuals over church appointments and governance.

Clerical Education

The level of schooling and training received by clergy members, which was criticized for being inadequate.

Celibacy

The vow taken by clergy to abstain from marriage and sexual relations.

Luther's Background

Martin Luther was born in Eisleben, Saxony, and his father made sacrifices for his education.

Legal Career

The profession that Martin Luther was initially expected to pursue after studying law.

Augustinian friars

A religious order whose members often preached to, taught, and assisted the poor.

Ordained priest

Martin Luther was ordained a priest in 1507.

Doctorate of theology

Martin Luther earned a doctorate of theology after additional study.

University of Wittenberg

From 1512 until his death in 1546, Luther served as professor of the Scriptures at this university.

Ninety-five Theses

Martin Luther writes 'Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences' in 1517.

Diet of Worms

A significant assembly in 1521 where Martin Luther was called to defend his writings.

Habsburg-Valois wars

A series of conflicts that occurred from 1521 to 1559.

German Peasants' War

A major uprising in 1525 influenced by the Reformation.

Indulgence

A document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins.

Treasury of merits

A collection of all the virtuous acts that Christ, the apostles, and the saints had done during their lives.

Purgatory

A place where souls on their way to Heaven went to make further amends for their earthly sins.

Saint Peter's indulgence

A special indulgence authorized by Pope Leo X to finance building plans in Rome.

Angela Merici

Established the Ursulines as the first women's teaching order.

John Calvin

Published 'The Institutes of the Christian Religion' in the 1530s.

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

Received papal approval in 1540.

Council of Trent

A major ecumenical council of the Catholic Church held from 1545 to 1563.

Mary Tudor

Reigned during the temporary restoration of Catholicism in England from 1553 to 1558.

Peace of Augsburg

Official recognition of Lutheranism in 1555.

Elizabeth I

Reigned in England from 1558 to 1603.

European witch-hunt

Reached its height from 1560 to 1660.

Civil war in the Netherlands

Occurred from 1568 to 1578.

Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre

A significant event in 1572.

Spanish Armada

Defeated by England in 1588.

Edict of Nantes

Issued in 1598, granting religious freedom in France.

Faith alone, grace alone, Scripture alone

Luther's understanding of Christian doctrine emphasizing that salvation comes through faith.

Indulgences

A practice where the Catholic Church sold forgiveness of sins, often symbolized by a monk offering an indulgence in exchange for money.

Johann Tetzel

A Dominican friar who ran an advertising blitz for the sale of indulgences, promising full forgiveness for sins or release from purgatory.

Archbishop Albert

The church official to whom Martin Luther addressed his Ninety-five Theses, involved in the sale of indulgences.

Celibacy of Clergy

The requirement that clergy remain unmarried, which Luther argued was an ineffective attempt to control human desires.

Albrecht Dürer

A prominent artist who painted the Four Apostles and had Protestant sympathies, reflecting the shift in religious art during the Reformation.

The Four Apostles

A painting by Albrecht Dürer depicting the apostles John, Peter, Paul, and Mark, emphasizing biblical figures over saints.

Pamphlet

A printed work that spread Luther's ideas and critiques of the Catholic Church, contributing to the Reformation.

Leipzig Debate

A formal scholarly debate in 1519 where Luther refused to retract his ideas, engaging with church representative Johann Eck.

Biblical Figures

Characters from the Bible that were emphasized in Protestant art, contrasting with the Catholic focus on saints and miracles.

Deceitful Practices

The term used to describe the sale of indulgences, which Luther and others criticized as morally wrong.

Slogan of Indulgences

"As soon as coin in coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs" - a phrase used to promote the sale of indulgences.

Theological Distinction

Luther's belief that there should be no distinction between clergy and laypeople in terms of access to God.

Reform

The movement initiated by Luther and others to address and correct perceived issues within the Catholic Church.

Official Protestantism

The status of cities like Nuremberg, which officially adopted Protestant beliefs during the Reformation.

Woodcut

An artistic technique used in pamphlets to visually convey messages, such as the criticism of indulgences.

Heavenly Bliss

The promise made by indulgence sellers that purchasing an indulgence would grant the buyer a place in heaven.

Luther Lore

The stories and traditions that developed around Martin Luther's life and actions, including the posting of the Ninety-five Theses.

Official Seals of the Pope

The marks used to authenticate indulgences, indicating their legitimacy and connection to the Church.

Papacy's response to Luther

The papacy condemned some of Luther's propositions, ordered his books to be burned, and gave him two months to recant or face excommunication.

Luther's retaliation

Luther publicly burned the papacy's letter condemning him.

Luther's refusal

Luther refused to recant his ideas unless convinced by Scripture or plain reason.

Luther's theological issues

By 1521, Luther's theological issues were intertwined with public controversies about the church's wealth, power, and structure.

Public sentiment in Germany

Nine-tenths of the population shouted 'Luther' as their war cry, while the other tenth called for 'Death to the court of Rome.'

Ulrich Zwingli

The most important early reformer other than Luther, a Swiss humanist, priest, and admirer of Erasmus, who lived from 1484 to 1531.

Meaning of liberty in the Roman world

In the Roman world, liberty meant the condition of being a free man.

Liberty in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, possessing liberty meant having special privileges or rights that others did not have.

Freedom of the city

A privilege that allowed citizens in London to practice trades and own property without interference.

Martin Luther's treatise

On Christian Liberty, a classic interpretation of liberty by Luther, written in Latin and translated into German.

Main themes of Luther's theology

The importance of faith, the relationship between Christian faith and good works, the dual nature of human beings, and the fundamental importance of the Scriptures.

Christian freedom

Luther states that Christians are freed from sin and death through Christ, not through their own actions.

Contradictory statements of a Christian man

A Christian man is the most free lord of all, and subject to none; yet also the most dutiful servant of all, and subject to everyone.

Paul's statements on freedom and servitude

Paul states, 'Though I be free from all men, yet have I made myself a servant unto all' (I Corinthians 9:19) and 'Owe no man anything but to love one another' (Romans 13:8).

Nature of love according to Luther

Love is by its own nature dutiful and obedient to the beloved object.

Twofold nature of man

Man is composed of a spiritual nature (the soul) and a bodily nature (the flesh).