memory

memory

ability to store and retrieve information over time

three key functions of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

storage

process of maintaining information in memory over time

retrieval

process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

henry molaison

had hippocampus removed and had a 30-second memory span as a result

three ways to encode

semantic encoding, visual imagery encoding, organizational encoding

semantic encoding

process of actively relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already in memory

visual imagery encoding

process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

organizational encoding

process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items

sensory storage

storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

iconic memory

fast-decaying store of visual information

echoic memory

fast-decaying store of auditory information

short-term memory

storage that holds information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute; can hold about 7 items

rehearsal

the process of keeping information in the short-term memory by mentally repeating it

serial position effect

suggests that we best remember the first and last items in a series and find it difficult to remember items in the middle

primacy effect

we best remember the first item in a series

recency effect

we best remember the last item in a series

chunking

combining small pieces of information into larger chunks that are more easily held in the short-term memory

working memory

stores and manipulates information

long-term memory

no known capacity limit, can hold information for hours, days, weeks, or years

consolidation

process by which memories become stable in the brain

reconsolidation

memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, requiring them to become consolidated again

long-term potentiation (LTP)

process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

engram

physical traces of memory

explicit memory

act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences, processed in hippocampus & frontal lobes

semantic memory

facts & knowledge, form of explicit memory

episodic memory

experienced events, form of explicit memory

implicit memory

influence of past experience on later behavior, even without effort/awareness of recollection. processed in cerebellum & basal ganglia

types of implicit memory

procedural memory, priming, classic conditioning, space/time/frequency

metacognition

awareness of our thoughts towards a task to help control our learning

self-reference effect

the tendency for people to better remember information when it has been encoded in reference to the self

encoding specificity principle

principle stating that the ability of a cue to aid retrieval depends on the degree to which it taps into info that was encoded at the time of original learning. cue helps us recreate memory (ex: taking a test in the room you learned the material in)

context-dependent memory

memory that can be helped or hindered by similarities or differences between the context in which it is learned and the context in which it is recalled

priming

the activation of particular associations in our memory; often unconscious

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to more easily remember events that have a congruence with one’s current mood

state-dependent memory

memory that is aided or impeded by a person’s internal state of consciousness

next-in-line effect

a person in a group has diminished recall for words of others who spoke immediately before or after the person — failure of encoding

proactive interference

old blocks new — the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

new blocks old - the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

retrieval failure

momentarily inaccessible due to interference, faulty cues, emotional states (TOT, “tip-of-the-tongue”)

distributed practice/spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention

testing effect

the finding that long-term memory is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information

massed practice

produces speedy short-term learning

flashbulb memory

vividly recollection of where someone was when an event occurred that was significant to them

recall

requires a person to retrieve information from memory without any external cues

recognition

involves identifying previously learned information from a set of options

relearning

measures how much faster someone can relearn previously learned material compared to learning it for the first time