Psychology- Ap exam review

Structuralism

Flashcard:

• School of thought in psychology

• Focuses on breaking down mental processes

• Emphasizes introspection and objective measurement of sensations and feelings

Functionalism

A psychological perspective that focuses on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment and function effectively in society.

mary ainsworth

Mary Ainsworth: Psychologist known for her "Strange Situation" study on attachment styles, identifying secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-ambivalent attachment.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Hermann Ebbinghaus: German psychologist known for his pioneering work on memory, specifically the forgetting curve and the spacing effect.

Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT)

Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT) - Medical imaging technique using X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

MRI uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the body's internal structures, helping diagnose medical conditions.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

EEG (electroencephalogram) is a test that measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp. It helps diagnose conditions like epilepsy and sleep disorders.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Imaging technique that uses radioactive substances to visualize metabolic processes in the body, often used in cancer diagnosis and brain studies.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Flashcard: Functional MRI (fMRI) measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. It provides insights into brain function by mapping neural activity during tasks or at rest.

magnetic source image (MSI)

Magnetic Source Image (MSI): A representation of brain activity created by measuring magnetic fields produced by neural activity. It helps locate brain functions.

Medulla oblongata

Controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate, located at the base of the brainstem.

Pons

Pons

• Part of the brainstem

• Connects cerebrum and cerebellum

• Helps regulate sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control

• Involved in relay of sensory information

Basal ganglia

Basal ganglia - A group of structures in the brain involved in motor control, cognition, and emotions. It plays a key role in movement coordination and procedural learning.

Thalamus

Thalamus

• Relay station in brain

• Processes sensory information

• Regulates consciousness, sleep, alertness

• Plays role in motor control and relaying signals to cortex

Hypothalamus

"Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. Plays a key role in the autonomic nervous system."

Hippocampus

Hippocampus - Part of the brain involved in memory formation and learning, located in the temporal lobe.

Cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher brain functions such as thinking, perception, and voluntary movement.

dendrites

Dendrites are the branch-like structures on a neuron that receive signals from other neurons and transmit them to the cell body.

axon

The long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body towards other neurons or muscles.

Glial cells

Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that provide support and protection for neurons in the nervous system. They play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and insulating neurons.

Glutamate

Neurotransmitter that excites neurons, involved in learning, memory, and brain development; excessive levels linked to neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that plays a key role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and other important functions in the brain and body.

Opioid peptides

Naturally occurring chemicals that act in the brain and body to reduce pain, induce sleep, and produce feelings of pleasure and well-being.

Norepinephrine

Norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate, blood flow to muscles, and alertness.

Agonists

Agonists are molecules that bind to a receptor and activate it, mimicking the action of the body's natural neurotransmitters or hormones.

Antagonists

Antagonists are molecules that bind to receptors and inhibit their activity, blocking the biological response that the receptor would typically produce.

Sensory or afferent neurons

Sensory or afferent neurons transmit information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system, allowing us to perceive and respond to stimuli.

Motor or efferent neurons

Motor or efferent neurons carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands, controlling movement and bodily functions.

Interneurons

Interneurons: Neurons that transmit signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons, playing a crucial role in processing information in the central nervous system.

endocrine system

Regulates hormones and glands in the body, influencing growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions and maintain homeostasis.

Pineal Gland

Pineal Gland Located in the brain, secretes melatonin to regulate sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms. Also known as the "third eye" due to its light-sensitive nature.

Pituitary Gland

Flashcard: Pituitary Gland

• Located at the base of the brain

• Regulates hormones and controls other glands

• Consists of anterior and posterior lobes

• Influences growth, metabolism, and reproduction

Thyroid Gland

Endocrine gland located in the neck, producing hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and energy levels in the body. It plays a crucial role in maintaining overall health.

Parathyroids

Small glands located behind the thyroid gland that regulate calcium levels in the blood by secreting parathyroid hormone (PTH).

Adrenal Glands

Small glands located on top of each kidney that produce hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, crucial for the body's stress response and metabolism.

Pancreas

Organ located behind the stomach that produces digestive enzymes and insulin to regulate blood sugar levels.

Insomnia

Condition characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep, leading to daytime fatigue, irritability, and impaired performance.

Narcolepsy

Excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden loss of muscle tone, hallucinations, and sleep paralysis are symptoms of this neurological disorder.

Sleep apnea

Sleep apnea: A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breaths during sleep, leading to poor sleep quality and daytime fatigue.

Night terrors

Night terrors: Episodes of intense fear or dread during sleep, often accompanied by screaming, thrashing, and a lack of recollection the next day.

Absolute threshold

Definition: Absolute threshold is the minimum amount of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus ___% of the time.

signal detection theory

A psychological theory that examines how individuals distinguish between important stimuli (signals) and background noise (noise).

Subliminal stimulation

Flashcard: Subliminal stimulation involves presenting stimuli below the threshold of conscious awareness to influence behavior or emotions.

Difference threshold

Difference threshold: The minimum amount of change in a stimulus that can be detected by a person 50% of the time. Also known as the just noticeable difference (JND).

Weber’s law

Flashcard: "Weber's Law states that the just noticeable difference between two stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli. It helps understand perception."

Transduction

Transduction in psychology is the process of converting sensory stimuli into neural signals that the brain can interpret and understand.

rods

Rods are photoreceptor cells in the retina that detect light and are responsible for vision in low-light conditions. They are more sensitive to light than cones.

cones

Cones are photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and functioning best in bright light conditions.

cornea

Clear, dome-shaped outer layer of the eye that helps focus light onto the retina. It plays a crucial role in vision by refracting light entering the eye.

iris

Iris - Part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil and gives the eye its color. It helps regulate the amount of light that enters the eye.

pupil

Part of the eye that regulates the amount of light entering the eye by changing size in response to different lighting conditions.

lens

Lens is a transparent structure that focuses light onto the retina, enabling clear vision. It can change shape to adjust focus for near or distant objects.

Bottom-up processing

Bottom-up processing is a cognitive approach where perception starts with individual elements and moves on to the whole. It's data-driven and starts with the senses.

Top-down processing

Top-down processing is when prior knowledge and expectations influence perception and interpretation of sensory information.

Phi phenomenon

Phi phenomenon: Illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession, appearing as a single light moving between them.

Figure–ground relationship

Figure-ground relationship is a visual perception concept where an object (figure) is distinguished from its surroundings (ground), aiding in focus and organization.

Proximity

The principle that people are more likely to form relationships with those who are physically close to them.

Principle of closure

Principle of closure is a Gestalt psychology concept where the brain fills in gaps in incomplete images to perceive a whole object.

Principle of similarity

A Gestalt psychology concept stating that humans perceive similar elements as a group or pattern, even if they are not physically connected.

Principle of continuity

Gestalt psychology concept stating that the human eye tends to follow smooth, continuous paths when interpreting visual stimuli.

Insight

Insight in psychology refers to a sudden and clear understanding of a problem or situation, often leading to a solution without conscious reasoning.

Shallow processing

Shallow processing - A cognitive strategy that involves focusing on superficial characteristics of information rather than deeply engaging with its meaning and content.

Deep processing

Deep processing involves encoding information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge, leading to better retention and recall.

Semantic encoding

Semantic encoding is the process of encoding and recalling information based on its meaning and relevance to the individual, leading to better memory retention.

Atkinson–Shiffrin three-stage model of memory

Model proposing memory process with sensory, short-term, and long-term stages for encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Sensory memory

Type of memory that holds sensory information for a very brief period, allowing us to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased.

Auditory or echoic memory

Auditory or echoic memory refers to the sensory memory system that holds auditory information for a brief period. It allows us to retain and recall sound stimuli.

Short-term memory (STM)

Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary storage system that holds a small amount of information for a short period, typically around 15-30 seconds.

Chunking

Chunking is a memory technique where information is broken down into smaller, manageable parts to improve retention and recall.

Long-term memory (LTM)

Long-term memory (LTM) is the stage of memory that holds information for a long period, potentially indefinitely, with a vast storage capacity.

Semantic memory

Type of long-term memory for general knowledge and facts not tied to specific events or personal experiences. Involves concepts, meanings, and understanding.

Concepts

Concepts are mental representations of categories or ideas that help us organize and understand the world around us. They are crucial for cognitive processes like reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Prototypes

In psychology, prototypes are the most typical or representative examples of a concept. They serve as a mental image or model that other related items are compared to.

Semantic networks

Semantic networks are a type of knowledge representation that organizes information in a network of interconnected concepts linked by relationships.

Schemas

Schemas are mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information. They guide our understanding of the world and influence how we perceive new information.

Flashbulb memory

Flashbulb memory is a vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event that is stored in one's mind with great clarity and accuracy.

Retrieval cues

Retrieval cues are prompts or hints that help in remembering information stored in memory, such as context, emotions, or related words.

Priming

Priming is a psychological phenomenon where exposure to a stimulus influences a person's response to a later stimulus. It can affect perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors.

Method of loci

Technique using spatial memory to recall information. Involves associating items with specific locations in a familiar place to aid in retrieval.

Peg word mnemonic

A mnemonic technique using rhyming words to remember items in a specific order.

Mood congruence

Tendency to recall memories that match current emotional state, influencing memory retrieval and perception.

Interference

Interference in psychology refers to when new information affects the ability to recall previously learned information, either positively (facilitation) or negatively (retroactive or proactive interference).

Misattribution error

Incorrectly attributing a memory to the wrong source, leading to false recollections or misunderstandings of events.

phonemes

Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that can change the meaning of a word. They are distinct sounds in a language's phonetic system.

Morphemes

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in language. They can be words or parts of words that carry meaning, such as prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

grammar

Grammar is the set of rules that govern the structure of sentences in a language, including syntax, morphology, and semantics.

syntax

Syntax refers to the rules governing the structure of sentences in a language, including word order, punctuation, and grammar.

semantics

Study of meaning in language, focusing on how words, phrases, and sentences convey information and contribute to communication.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or accomplishing a task. It specifies a series of operations to be performed.

Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on specific observations or evidence, often used in scientific research to form hypotheses or theories.

Deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning starts with a general principle and applies it to a specific case to draw a logical conclusion. It moves from the general to the specific.

Availability heuristic

Availability heuristic is a mental shortcut where judgments are based on information that comes to mind easily, rather than considering all possible evidence.

Representative heuristic

Representative heuristic is a mental shortcut where judgments are based on how closely something resembles a prototype or stereotype, often leading to errors.

Anchoring effect

Cognitive bias where initial information influences decision-making. People rely heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

Confirmation bias

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Belief perseverance

Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to initial beliefs even after they have been discredited. This bias can prevent individuals from accepting new information or changing their minds.

Belief bias

Tendency to judge the strength of an argument based on how believable the conclusion is, rather than on the logic and evidence presented.

Hindsight bias

Tendency to believe events were predictable after they occurred. Hinders objective evaluation due to the belief that the outcome was foreseeable.