final review

What are the differences between the endocrine and nervous systems?

The endocrine system uses hormones for communication with slower and longer-lasting effects, while the nervous system uses electrical impulses for faster, short-term responses.

What is the general structure of endocrine glands?

Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, regulating various physiological functions.

What are the general stimuli for hormone release?

Released in response to hormones from other glands, changes in blood levels of certain substances, or nerve impulses.

What hormones are secreted from the anterior and posterior pituitary?

Anterior secretes ACTH, TSH, GH; posterior releases ADH and oxytocin targeting kidneys and uterine muscles.

What is the main function of thyroid hormone?

Regulates metabolism and energy levels by binding to nuclear receptors and altering gene expression.

What is hematocrit?

Clinical measurement of the proportion of blood volume occupied by red blood cells.

What are the characteristics of different blood types?

Blood types A, B, AB, and O differ in antigens on red blood cells and corresponding antibodies in plasma.

What are the different types of leukocytes?

Includes neutrophils (phagocytic), lymphocytes (immune response), monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.

How does blood flow in a unidirectional manner?

Due to valves in veins and heart structure; arteries carry blood away and veins return it.

Which vessels carry blood to and from the heart and lungs?

Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to lungs, and pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood back to heart.

What is the anatomy of vessels and the heart?

Heart consists of four chambers; blood vessels include arteries, veins, and capillaries for specific functions.

What are the types of arteries?

Elastic (stretchable), muscular (distribute blood), and arterioles (regulate blood flow into capillaries).

What are the functions of heart valves?

Prevent backflow of blood and ensure it flows in the correct direction through heart chambers.

What are the parts of the ECG?

P wave (atrial depolarization), QRS complex (ventricular depolarization), T wave (ventricular repolarization).

What is the cardiac cycle?

Sequence of events in one heartbeat, including diastole (filling) and systole (contraction) phases.

What are the different types of capillaries?

Continuous (tight junctions), fenestrated (pores), and sinusoidal (large openings); flow patterns vary.

What happens at the arterial and venous ends of a capillary bed?

At the arterial end, nutrients/oxygen are delivered; at the venous end, waste/carbon dioxide are collected.

List some arteries and the tissues they supply.

Common carotid (head/neck), coronary (heart), renal (kidneys), and femoral (thigh).

How does lymph flow through the lymphatic system?

From lymphatic capillaries to lymphatic vessels, draining into thoracic and right lymphatic ducts; aids immune function.

What are some pathogens and their general characteristics?

Bacteria (unicellular), viruses (acellular), fungi (eukaryotic), and parasites (multicellular) with varying treatments.

What are the characteristics of innate and adaptive immunity?

Innate immunity is immediate and nonspecific; adaptive immunity develops over time and targets specific pathogens.

What are the first, second, and third lines of defense in immunity?

First line - skin/mucous membranes; second line - inflammatory response/phagocytes; third line - T-cells/B-cells.

How is an antigen presented to helper and cytotoxic T-cells?

Presented by antigen-presenting cells through MHC molecules, activating T-cells.

What is the functional and structural organization of the respiratory system?

Includes upper (nose, pharynx) and lower (larynx, trachea, lungs) structures for gas exchange.

How is air conditioned by the nasal cavity?

Air is warmed, moistened, and filtered before entering lungs.

What is the anatomy of the nasal cavity, lungs, and larynx?

Nasal cavity has conchae for airflow; larynx contains vocal cords; lungs comprise lobes and alveoli.

What is the sequence of events for gas exchange?

Inhalation brings oxygen into alveoli, diffusing into blood; carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to alveoli for exhalation.

What are the gross anatomical structures and functions of the urinary system?

Includes kidneys (filtration), ureters (transport), bladder (storage), urethra (excretion).

What is renal plasma clearance?

Measures the efficiency of kidneys in removing a substance from blood over time.

What are the protective layers of the kidneys?

Surrounded by renal fascia, adipose tissue, and fibrous capsule.

What are the parts of the nephron?

Renal corpuscle (glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule) and renal tubule (proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule).

What types of cells are found in the collecting duct?

Principal cells (water and sodium reabsorption) and intercalated cells (acid-base balance regulation).

What is the order of arteries blood flows through as it enters the kidney?

Aorta → renal artery → segmental arteries → interlobar arteries → arcuate arteries → cortex → afferent arterioles → glomerulus.

What is the distribution of fluid in the body?

Approximately two-thirds of body fluid is intracellular, and one-third is extracellular.

What distinguishes intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid?

Intracellular fluid has more potassium and a more negative charge compared to extracellular fluid.

How does drinking water affect blood osmolarity?

Drinking water decreases blood osmolarity by diluting solutes in the bloodstream.

What is volume excess?

Condition where fluid volume increases without a change in osmolarity.

What changes in blood pH occur with diarrhea and vomiting?

Diarrhea leads to metabolic acidosis; vomiting can cause metabolic alkalosis due to loss of stomach acids.

What stimulates adrenal gland hormone release?

Hormonal signals from hypothalamus, stress responses, and changes in plasma levels of electrolytes stimulate release.

What are the general functions and structures of the digestive system?

Aids in food breakdown, nutrient absorption, and waste elimination; includes mouth, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas.

What is peristalsis and mixing in the digestive system?

Peristalsis is a wave-like muscle contraction that moves food through the digestive tract, while mixing occurs to enhance contact between food and digestive juices.

What organs and processes are involved in chemical and mechanical digestion for nutrients?

Carbohydrates digest in the mouth and small intestine, proteins in the stomach and small intestine, and fats primarily in the small intestine.

What happens during the absorptive and fasting states?

During the absorptive state, the body stores nutrients; during fasting, it mobilizes stored energy for use.

What are the different types of lipoproteins?

Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL; each type has different functions in lipid transport and metabolism.