Unit 4: Social Psychology

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's stable, enduring traits.

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others' behavior to internal causes.

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. prejudice generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am i?" that comes from our group memberships.

ingroup

"us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

outgroup

"them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group.

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. for example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

persuasion

changing people's attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people's thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments.

norms

a society's understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. norms prescribe "proper" behavior in individual and social situations.

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

informational social influence

influence resulting from a person's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

obedience

complying with an order or a command.

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

tight culture

a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.

loose culture

a place with flexible and informal norms.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration — the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal — creates anger, which can generate aggression.

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them.

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship.

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help.

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

social trap

a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

GRIT

graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction; a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experiences.

psychoanalysis (theory)

freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

unconscious

according to freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. according to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. the id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the partly conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to freud, mediates among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. the ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

superego

the partly conscious part of personality that, according to freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.