Psych Paper 3

1a) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method → Experiment (quant)

• test a specific hypothesis by collecting data to support or refute it…

• examine relationships between an independent and a dependent variable to attempt to determine causation…

1a) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method → Correlational study (quant)

• investigating relationships between variables without any control over the setting; a focus on two variables…

• involves correlation coefficients to quantify the strength and direction of relationships. (positive correlation = both variables increase or decrease together | negative correlation = one variable increases while the other decreases)

1a) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method → Correlational study (quant)

• self-report technique, participants given pre-set questions to answer.

• large group of people answer (ex. online forms/paper questionnaires)

• efficient data collection method, easily aggregated, analyzed, and compared

1a) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method → Interview (quant + qual)

• direct communication between researcher + the participant (irl, phone, zoom) to gain insight into people’s thoughts/opinions/feelings from their POV

• different types - strict set of pre-planned questions (structured) OR more flexible/open-ended (unstructured), and some can be semi-structured…

1a) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method → Focus group (quant + qual)

• focus-group interviews are carried out with a small group of participants who all have something in common, taking part in the interview at the same time

• Participants are encouraged to talk amongst themselves rather than just to the facilitator.

• facilitator may use a topic guide but it is possible to adjust the topics = expand on tangential information participants bring up

1a) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method → Observational study (quant + qual)

• Researchers watch + record behavior occurring in naturalistic environments. 

• Researchers don’t manipulate/influence situations. 

• Observations may be participant or non-participant observations. 

• Various recording techniques can be used, but field notes—detailed notes during or after the observation—are an important part of the data to analyze patterns & provide context for the study

1a) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method → Case study (quant + qual)

• detailed examination of a single person/group/situation over a prolonged period to explore complex psychological phenomena. 

• uncover unique or rare conditions, behaviors, or experiences that may not be observed in larger populations

• various data-collection methods (interviews, observations, psychological tests) to create a comprehensive picture

1b) Describe the sampling method used in the study - Snowball

• non-probabilistic sampling as initial participants are selected and then asked to refer others they know

• useful when studying groups that are difficult to identify or access, such as specific subcultures or marginalized communities

1c) Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice - Focus Group

• One reason is that this is a different way to explore (link to the aim of stimulus piece). 

• Allows participants to share their views and experiences related to (link to aim of stimulus piece). 

• As an additional research method the researchers would use triangulation to compensate for the limitations of (link to whatever the research method was).

1c) Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice - Survey

• Could function as a follow-up on this study’s findings 

• Closed questions = quantitative data, enabling statistical comparisons across groups of people

• triangulation.

2) Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical considerations could be applied - Informed consent

The process of ensuring that participants voluntarily agree to take part in a study after being fully informed about its purpose, procedures, potential risks, and their rights.

2) Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical considerations could be applied - Anonymity

Ensuring that participants' identities remain unknown by not collecting or disclosing personally identifiable information

2) Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical considerations could be applied - Confidentiality

Protecting participants' personal data by securely storing information and only sharing it in a way that prevents identification.

2) Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical considerations could be applied - Debriefing

A post-study explanation provided to participants, clarifying the true purpose of the research, addressing any deception used, and ensuring they leave without distress or confusion.

2) Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical considerations could be applied - Deception/lack of deception

The intentional withholding of information or misleading of participants about the true nature of a study, which must be justified and minimized to avoid unnecessary distress

2) Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical considerations could be applied - Protection from harm

Researchers must take all necessary precautions to ensure participants do not experience physical, psychological, or emotional distress as a result of the study

2) Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical considerations could be applied - Right to withdraw

Participants must be informed that they can leave the study at any time and request the removal of their data without any negative consequences

2) List ethical considerations in reporting the results

1. Anonymity/confidentiality

2. Informed consent

3. Debriefing (notifying them of what would appear in the report)

4. Protection from harm (findings are presented in a way that does not cause distress or harm)

5. Accurate reporting (shouldn’t exaggerate effects)

2) List ethical considerations in applying findings

1. Considering generalisability - Acknowledging the limits of scope that the study’s results cover and thus the possible limitations the findings have when generalising to a wider context

2. Researcher reflexivity - acknowledging the researcher’s own biases and expectations which could skew findings

3. Replication by an independent researcher - if independent researchers can test the reliability of findings and corroborate them

4. Social implications of applying the findings

Replication by an independent researcher (ethics)

if independent researchers can test the reliability of findings and corroborate them

Researcher reflexivity (ethics)

acknowledging the researcher’s own biases and expectations that could skew findings

Replication by an independent researcher (ethics)

if independent researchers can test the reliability of findings and corroborate them

Generalisability

the extent to which findings from a study can be applied to the broader population or different contexts beyond the specific sample and setting

3) Discuss the possibility of generalising the findings of the study - list factors

1. Statistical generalisation

2. Cross-cultural validity

3. Replicating a study

3) Discuss the possibility of transferring the findings of the study - list factors

1. Sample-to-population transferability

2. Case-to-case transferability

3. Replication in qualitative research

Generalisation | Statistical generalisation

Definition: the extent to which findings from a study can be applied to the broader population from which the sample was drawn
Link to generalisation: Sampling method leads to sampling bias = reduces statistical generalisability as certain groups may be over/under-represented

Generalisation | Cross-cultural validity

Definition: the extent to which research findings can be applied to people from different cultural backgrounds, taking into account differences in norms, values, laws, and social practices

Link to generalisation: studies conducted in one cultural contexts can't generalise to other cultures where behaviour is shaped by different social norms or policies.

Generalisation | Sample-to-population transferability

Definition: repeating a study with different samples, in different settings, or at different times to test whether the findings are consistent

Link to generalisation: similar results across replications = increased confidence of findings not being due to chance/unique contextual factors = more generalisable to wider population

Transferability | Case-to-case transferability

Definition: the extent to which findings from one qualitative study can be applied to another similar context or setting

Link to transferability: if key contextual features differ (culture, social norms) = findings may not transfer because the experience being studied itself is shaped by context

Transferability | Replication in qualitative research

Definition: repeating a study in different but comparable contexts to see whether similar themes and patterns emerge

Link to transferability: similar findings across multiple qualitative studies/contexts = confidence that results are not unique to one case = strong transferability.

lack of replication limits the ability to apply findings beyond the original setting

3) Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible - list factors

QUALITATIVE!

• Triangulation (researcher, method)

• Establishing rapport

• Reflexivity (researcher, from method = epistemological)

• Credibility checks with participants

• Replication

QUANTITATIVE

• Conduct a pilot study

• Researcher triangulation

BOTH

• Method triangulation

• Credibility checks (with participants)

• Replication of findings (well-designed research protocol explicitly outlining how data can be collected/analysed)

3) Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible - Triangulation

Definition: using multiple methods, data sources, or perspectives to enhance the validity of findings

Link to credibility: comparing findings across different sources/method = confirm consistent results = increasing the credibility of findings

3) Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible - Credibility checks

Definition: allowing participants to review transcripts, interpretations, or conclusions to confirm that their experiences have been accurately represented

Link to credibility: participants verify data is accurate = reduces researcher bias = findings more credible

3) Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible - Researcher/epistemological reflexivity

Definition: recognising and reflecting on how the researcher’s own beliefs, experiences, and assumptions may influence data collection and interpretation

Link to credibility: acknowledging and managing potential bias = researcher increases transparency = reduces subjectivity

3) Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible - Building rapport

Definition: establishing trust and a comfortable relationship with participants so they feel safe to share honest and detailed responses

Link to credibility: participants feel respected and understood = more likely to give authentic data

Transferring

the extent to which findings from a study can be applied to other contexts, populations, or settings.

In qualitative research, transferability depends on the richness and depth of the data, the sampling methods, and the characteristics of the study population

3) Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias - list factors

Confounding variables → Pilot study to identify and address

Demand characteristics → degree of deception

Researcher bias → Double blind procedure

Sampling bias → Alt sampling method

3) Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias - Confounding variables

Definition: uncontrolled factors that may influence the dependent variable, providing alternative explanations for the results

Potential source: participant characteristics, situational factors

Mitigating measure: pilot study to identify potential confounds and then standardise conditions or control relevant variables

3) Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias - Demand characteristics

Definition: when participants modify their behaviour because they believe they know the aim of the study or what is expected of them

Potential source: informed consent, tasks or questionnaires used

Mitigating measure: deception to conceal the true aim of the study, double blind (?)

3) Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias - Researcher bias

Definition: when a researcher’s expectations, beliefs, or behaviour unintentionally influence data collection, analysis, or interpretation

Potential source: data collection (body language, tone) or data analysis (selective interpretation to confirm hypothesis)

Mitigating measure: double-blind where neither participants nor researchers know which condition participants are in to prevent expectations from influencing participant treatment or data interpretation

3) Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias - Sampling bias

Definition: when the sample is not representative of the target population, leading to limited generalisability and skewed results

Potential source: non-probability sample (convenience, volunteer = certain groups were overrepresented while others were excluded)

Mitigating measure: random/stratified sampling to give all members of target population an equal chance of being selected