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Domains/Kingdoms
Different classifications of living organisms based on their characteristics and evolutionary relationships
Cladograms
Diagram showing the evolutionary relationships between organisms based on shared characteristics
Phylogenetic tree
Diagram illustrating the evolutionary history and relationships between organisms
Common ancestor
An organism from which two or more different species have evolved
Species
A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Characteristics of living things
Properties that define life, such as growth, reproduction, and response to stimuli
Viruses
Non-living infectious agents that replicate inside host cells
Charles Darwin
English naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection
Natural selection
The process by which organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
Random mutation
A spontaneous change in an organism's DNA sequence
Selective pressure
Environmental factors that influence the survival and reproduction of individuals
Survival of the Fittest
A measure of an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment
Differential survival and reproduction
The individuals with the most favorable traits are more likely to survive and pass on their genes
Adaptation
A trait that increases an organism's chances of survival and reproduction
Disruptive selection
Natural selection that favors extreme phenotypes over intermediate ones
Directional selection
Natural selection that favors one extreme phenotype over the other
Stabilizing selection
Natural selection that favors intermediate phenotypes over extreme ones
Genetic drift
A random change in the gene pool of a population due to chance
Bottleneck effect
A sudden reduction in population size that leads to a loss of genetic diversity
Founder effect
Genetic drift that occurs when a small group of individuals establishes a new population
Gene flow
The movement of genes from one population to another
Speciation
The formation of new species from existing ones
Fossils
Preserved remains or traces of ancient organisms
Homologous structures
Structures that are similar in different species due to common ancestry
Analogous structures
Structures that are similar in function but not in structure, due to convergent evolution
Vestigial organs
Structures that have no apparent function in an organism but are remnants of ancestral structures
Embryonic comparisons
Comparing the development of embryos to understand evolutionary relationships
Molecular biology
The study of biological molecules, such as DNA and proteins, to understand evolutionary relationships
Atoms
The smallest unit of matter
Subatomic particles
Particles that make up atoms, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons
Periodic table
A tabular arrangement of elements based on their atomic number
Valence electrons
Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom
Ions
Charged atoms or molecules
Chemical bonding
The process of atoms or molecules sticking together
Molecules
Two or more atoms bonded together
Polarity
The unequal distribution of charge in a molecule
Hydrogen bonding
Weak bonds between hydrogen and electronegative atoms
Carbon backbone
A chain of carbon atoms in organic molecules
Macromolecules
Large molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids, that are essential for life
Monomers
Small subunits that make up macromolecules
Polymers
Macromolecules made up of repeating monomers
Dehydration synthesis
The process of joining monomers by removing water
Hydrolysis
The process of breaking down polymers by adding water
Carbohydrates
Macromolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, used for energy storage and structural support
Lipids
Macromolecules that are insoluble in water and play roles in energy storage and cell membrane structure
Proteins
Macromolecules made up of amino acids, involved in various cellular functions
Nucleic acids
Macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information
Prokaryotic cells
Cells that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Eukaryotic cells
Cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Organelles
Specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions
Plant cells
Eukaryotic cells that have a cell wall and chloroplasts
Animal cells
Eukaryotic cells that lack a cell wall and chloroplasts
Homeostasis
The maintenance of a stable internal environment in an organism
Feedback loops
Mechanisms that maintain homeostasis through self-regulation
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, the energy currency of cells
Cellular respiration
The process of converting glucose into ATP to release energy
Aerobic respiration
Cellular respiration that requires oxygen to produce ATP
Anaerobic respiration
Cellular respiration that occurs without the presence of oxygen
Body systems
Groups of organs that work together to perform specific functions in an organism
Effect of exercise on cells and systems
Exercise increases oxygen and nutrient delivery to cells and improves the overall function of body systems
Structure of cell membranes
A phospholipid bilayer that regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell
Semi-permeable
Allowing certain substances to pass through while blocking others
Concentration gradient
The difference in concentration of a substance across a space
Passive transport
The movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy
Diffusion
The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
Osmosis
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
Hypertonic
Describing a solution with a higher solute concentration compared to another solution
Hypotonic
Describing a solution with a lower solute concentration compared to another solution
Isotonic
Describing a solution with an equal solute concentration compared to another solution
Equilibrium
A state of balance where there is no net movement of molecules
Active transport
The movement of substances across a cell membrane with the use of energy
Determining variables
Identifying factors that can affect the outcome of an experiment
Control group
The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment
Constants
Variables that should remain the same throughout an experiment
Correlation coefficient
A statistical measure of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables
Evidence for viruses not being living
Lack of cellular structure and inability to reproduce without a host cell
Evidence for viruses being living
Ability to evolve, contain genetic material, and exhibit some life-like characteristics
Antibiotic resistance
The ability of bacteria to survive and reproduce in the presence of antibiotics
Most effective antibiotic
The antibiotic that shows the largest zone of inhibition in a bacterial culture
Least effective antibiotic
The antibiotic that shows the smallest zone of inhibition in a bacterial culture
Fitness in natural selection
Measured by an organism's ability to produce fertile offspring
Genetic drift and adaptation
Random changes in allele frequencies that can lead to the fixation of beneficial traits in a population
The ultimate source of genetic variation
Mutation, which introduces new alleles into a population
Adaptive evolution
Results from natural selection favoring individuals with traits that increase their fitness
Evolutionary adaptation of a mouse population
Mice with thicker fur are more likely to survive a cold winter, leading to an increase in the frequency of the thick fur trait
Proteins and their instructions
DNA holds the instructions responsible for the sequence of amino acids in proteins
The four most common elements in living organisms
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
An atom with 8 electrons in its outer shell
Tends not to form chemical bonds with other atoms
Number of bonds in an oxygen molecule
Double bonds; a water molecule has single bonds
Polarity of water molecules
Due to the unequal distribution of charge between oxygen and hydrogen atoms
Stable nonpolar molecule
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Macromolecules in a cell
Proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids
Amino acids
The R group is the only part that changes among the 20 types
Nonpolar biochemical compounds
Lipids
Dehydration synthesis
Two monomers are linked together while water molecules are removed
Hydrolysis
Polymers are broken down into monomers by adding water molecules
Energy storage
Carbohydrates and lipids serve as energy storage molecules in cells
Organelle
A membrane-bound structure within a cell that performs a specific function
Prokaryotic cells
Cells that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Eukaryotic cells
Cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
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