PBSI 350 Exam 1 Review

Cognitive Neuroscience Exam 1 study guide over chapters 1-3

What is a neuron and how is it different from glia in terms of function and location?

Neurons

• Transmit information

• Structure: dendrites, soma, axon

• Functions: communication, sensory perception, motor control

Glia

• Support and protect neurons

• Types: astrocytes (blood-brain barrier), oligodendrocytes (CNS myelin), Schwann cells (PNS myelin), microglia (immune cells)

• Functions: support, homeostasis, repair

What is the blood-brain barrier?

A selective barrier between the bloodstream and the brain

Protects the brain from toxins and pathogens

Allows essential nutrients to pass through Formed by tight junctions between endothelial cells in brain capillaries

Be familiar with the anatomical terminology discussed in class (dorsal, ventral, rostra, caudal etc.)

Dorsal: Toward the back or top

Ventral: Toward the front or bottom

Rostral: Toward the nose or head

Caudal: Toward the tail or back end

Medial: Toward the midline

Lateral: Away from the midline

Superior: Above or closer to the head

Inferior: Below or closer to the feet

Know the 3 planes discussed in class.

Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right parts (medial and lateral).

Coronal (Frontal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

What does contralateral mean? Ipsilateral?

Contralateral: Refers to structures or functions on opposite sides of the body. For example, if a stroke affects the right side of the brain, it may lead to symptoms on the left side of the body.

Ipsilateral: Refers to structures or functions on the same side of the body. For example, a nerve injury on the right side of the body will affect sensations or movements on the right side as well.

What does the central nervous system (CNS) consist of? Which structures protect this system?

CNS: Brain and spinal cord

Protective Structures: Skull, vertebral column, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

The brainstem consists of which two structures?

Midbrain and hindbrain (which includes the pons and medulla

Why is CSF important?

Cushions the brain, removes waste, and helps maintain a stable environment

What is the major function of the medulla (reticular activating system)?

Regulates vital functions like heart rate, breathing, and arousal

Understand the general function of the cerebellum.

Coordinates voluntary movements and maintains balance and posture

What, where, and why of the pons.

Located in the brainstem; connects the cerebellum to the rest of the brain and regulates sleep and respiration

What, where and why of the superior and inferior colliculi.

Superior Colliculi: Located in the midbrain; involved in visual reflexes

Inferior Colliculi: Located in the midbrain; involved in auditory processing

What is homeostasis and which brain structure influences this function by secreting hormones?

Homeostasis: Maintenance of stable internal conditions

Brain Structure: Hypothalamus (regulates homeostasis by secreting hormones)

Understand the general function of the thalamus.

Relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex

The basal ganglia consists of 4 brain structures which are?

Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra

The limbic system is comprised of which brain structures? What is the general function of this group of structures?

Limbic System Structures: Hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus, and hypothalamus

Function: Emotion, memory, and motivation

Be able to label the fissures (3 discussed), gyri (2 discussed), and lobes (4 discussed) of the brain.

Fissures: Longitudinal fissure, central sulcus, lateral sulcus

Gyri: Precentral gyrus, postcentral gyrus

Lobes: Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

Label this diagram. Understand what is happening in terms of ion movement and voltage numbers!

There are two types of neurotransmitters classified based on their effects. What are they?

Excitatory (e.g., glutamate) and inhibitory (e.g., GABA)

Are glutamate and GABA neurotransmitters? If so, how are they different in terms of effects?

Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter; increases neuronal activity

GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter; decreases neuronal activity

Tell me all about the serotonergic, noradrenergic, dopaminergic and cholinergic systems! (Which neurotransmitter is released and what effect does this neurotransmitter have on the body)

Serotonergic System: Releases serotonin; regulates mood, sleep, and appetite

Noradrenergic System: Releases norepinephrine; affects arousal, alertness, and mood

Dopaminergic System: Releases dopamine; influences movement, reward, and pleasure

Cholinergic System: Releases acetylcholine; involved in memory, learning, and muscle activation

What is a Brodmann map?

A classification system of brain regions based on their cytoarchitecture (cell structure)

What is myelin and what types of cells produce myelin?

Myelin: Fatty substance that insulates axons and speeds up electrical signal transmission

Myelin-Producing Cells: Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS)

Understand the concept of proprioception

The sense of the relative position of body parts and strength of effort used in movement

Know about the primary visual cortex (V1) and about the crossing of entering information.

Primary Visual Cortex (V1): Located in the occipital lobe; processes initial visual information

Crossing of Information: Visual information from each eye crosses at the optic chiasm and is processed in the opposite side of the brain

Compare alexia with agraphia? Which lobe is involved with these disorders?

Alexia: Inability to read; involves the occipital lobe

Agraphia: Inability to write; involves the parietal lobe

What is a major white matter tract we talked about and where is it located?

Corpus callosum; located between the two cerebral hemispheres

Know about different research methods (lesion method, single case studies, group studies). What are the pros and cons associated with these methods?

• Lesion Method: Studies effects of brain damage.

  • Pros: Provides causal evidence for brain function.

  • Cons: Limited to naturally occurring or induced damage; may not be generalizable.

• Single Case Studies: In-depth analysis of one individual.

  • Pros: Detailed, specific insights; can be used for rare conditions.

  • Cons: Limited generalizability; potential for subjective interpretation.

• Group Studies: Compare groups with and without certain conditions.

  • Pros: More generalizable; allows for statistical analysis.

  • Cons: Less detail on individual differences; potential for group variability

What did Paul Broca discover by using autopsies as information sources? What concept did his discoveries lead to?

Discovery: identified a region in the left frontal lobe (Broca's area) associated with speech production deficits.

Concept: Localization of function (specific brain regions are responsible for specific functions).

What is a disconnection syndrome?

A condition resulting from damage to brain connections (e.g., corpus callosum) that impairs communication between brain regions.

Are there ethical considerations associated with animal research? Be familiar with these guidelines.

Minimizing harm, ensuring humane treatment, and justifying the research's significance. Guidelines include the 3Rs: Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement.

What happens in a single cell recording and what are the results used to determine?

Measures electrical activity of a single neuron. Results: Provides information on neuron firing patterns and its role in specific functions.

Know the function of these procedures and how they’re done (EEG, PET, MRI, CAT, fMRI)

• EEG (Electroencephalography): Measures electrical activity of the brain; used for studying brain waves and detecting abnormalities.

• PET (Positron Emission Tomography): Measures brain activity by tracking radioactive tracers; used for observing metabolic processes.

• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Provides detailed images of brain structures using magnetic fields; used for structural imaging.

• CAT (Computed Axial Tomography): Provides cross-sectional images of the brain using X-rays; used for structural imaging.

• fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow; used for functional imaging.

Know more about the procedural aspect of EEGs and how they are set up! (read your textbook to gain a deep understanding about how this procedure works)

Electrodes placed on the scalp detect electrical activity; used to monitor brain waves and diagnose conditions like epilepsy.

What is an ERP and how is it used as an electrophysiological method?

A brain response to specific stimuli, detected via EEG; used to study cognitive processes like attention and perception.

Explain double dissociation.

A method used to show that two cognitive functions are independent of each other by demonstrating that damage to one brain area impairs one function but not the other, and vice versa.

What is the split-brain procedure?

Surgical severing of the corpus callosum to treat severe epilepsy; used to study the functions of the brain's hemispheres independently.

What is the arcuate fasciculus?

A bundle of nerve fibers connecting Broca's area and Wernicke's area; important for language processing.

Explain the Wada technique. What interesting findings did this method reveal?

Injects anesthetic into one hemisphere to temporarily disable it and assess language and memory functions. Findings: Revealed lateralization of language functions (usually in the left hemisphere) and differences in hemispheric roles.

What is the difference in processing function between the right and left hemispheres?

Left Hemisphere: Typically involved in language, analytical, and logical tasks.

Right Hemisphere: Typically involved in spatial abilities, creativity, and holistic processing.

Based on the lecture, does the corpus callosum enhance or depress cognitive performance?

Generally enhances cognitive performance by facilitating communication between the two hemispheres.

Know about the pros and cons of positron emission tomography exams

Pros: Provides detailed information on brain function and metabolism.

Cons: Involves radioactive tracers; lower spatial resolution compared to MRI.

Compare MRI with PET in terms of benefits

Provides high-resolution structural images; no radiation.

Provides functional information about brain activity; involves radiation.

What is the method of converging operations?

Using multiple research methods or approaches to study a phenomenon to strengthen findings and validate results.

What is phonology, syntax and semantics?

Phonology: Study of sounds in language and their organization.

Syntax: Rules governing sentence structure and grammar.

Semantics: Study of meaning in language.

How is neuropsychological assessment used?

Evaluates cognitive, behavioral, and emotional functions to diagnose and understand brain disorders.

A customized flexible neuropsychological battery considers 3 elements about the person being evaluated. What are these elements?

Individual’s specific symptoms, functional abilities, and personal history.

What is the most widely used test used to measure intelligence? (don’t worry about details)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Review from chapter 2! How does an MRI work? What is it used for? What are the advantages/disadvantages?

Review: Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of brain structures.

Used For: Structural imaging of the brain.

Advantages: High resolution, no radiation.

Disadvantages: Expensive, may not capture functional activity.

What is an estimate of premorbid functioning used for? What specifically does it assess?

Assesses an individual’s cognitive abilities before an injury or illness to gauge the extent of impairment.

What is diffusion tensor imaging? Why is this procedure used?

MRI-based technique that maps white matter tracts by measuring water diffusion in the brain.

Used For: Visualizing and studying brain connectivity.

What is diffusion tractography?

A method within DTI to reconstruct and visualize the pathways of white matter tracts in the brain.

Understand how PET scans can provide information regarding neurotransmitter function.

Use radioactive tracers that bind to specific neurotransmitter systems to measure their activity and distribution.

What why and how of MRS scans

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Measures concentrations of specific metabolites in the brain.

Why: To study metabolic changes associated with neurological disorders.

How: Detects chemical changes in tissues using magnetic fields.

Which scan is good at assessing glutamate, GABA and NAA?

MRS: Effective for assessing neurotransmitters like glutamate and GABA, and metabolites like NAA (N-acetylaspartate).

fMRI scanning is used for what? How does this scan work? (read your textbook to learn more about the details of this scan)

Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

How: Exploits the BOLD (blood-oxygen-level-dependent) signal to visualize active brain regions.

What is an ROI? Which scan uses this?

Region of Interest: Specific brain area selected for detailed analysis. Used In: fMRI and PET scans

A multivoxel pattern analysis provides what type of information?

Analyzes patterns of activity across multiple brain voxels to understand complex cognitive processes.

Know all about EEG readings and ERP (what they are best at, exogenous/endogenous, units of measurement)

Measure electrical activity across the scalp; best for studying brain waves and overall activity.

Exogenous: Response to external stimuli.

Endogenous: Response related to cognitive processes.

Units: Microvolts (µV)

What is phase coupling? When is this used?

Coordination of neural oscillations across different brain regions. Used: To study connectivity and synchronization between brain areas.

What is an MEG recording and how does it work?

Magnetoencephalography: Measures magnetic fields produced by neuronal activity. How: Uses superconducting sensors to detect magnetic fields.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of MEG?

Advantages: High temporal resolution, non-invasive.

Disadvantages: Expensive, limited spatial resolution.

Know what, why, and how of TMS (read your textbook to understand more about the benefits and side effects of TMS)

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: Non-invasive method to stimulate brain regions using magnetic fields.

Why: To study brain function and treat neurological conditions.

How: Delivers brief magnetic pulses to targeted brain areas.

Know what a tDCS is used for and compare it to TMS (read your textbook to learn more about uses of this procedure)

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: Applies a low electrical current to the scalp to modulate brain activity. Uses: Enhances cognitive function, treats neurological disorders.

Comparison to TMS: tDCS is less invasive and more cost-effective but generally has lower spatial resolution and weaker effects compared to TMS.