Oxford Text pg 20-30

correlation

a measure of linear relationships between two variables

effect size

the absolute value of the correlation coefficient

statistical significance

the likelihood that the observed correlation between two variables is due to random chance

significant large

scientists are looking for statistically __________ [significant/insignificant] correlations with ____ [large/small] effect sizes.

causation

correlation limits - they cannot be interpreted in terms of __________

the third variable problem

(correlation limit) the possibility that a third variable exists that correlates both with X and Y and explains the correlation between them

curvilinear relationships

(correlation limit) variables are linked non-linearly

spurious correlations

(correlation limit) when calculating multiple correlations between multiple variables - the possibility that some of the statistically significant correlations are the result of random chance

trustworthiness

the credibility of quantitative research

triangulation

a combination of different approaches to collecting and interpreting data in order to enhance the credibility of a study

establishing a rapport

ensuring participants are being honest in order to enhance the credibility of a study

iterative questioning

spotting ambiguous answers and returning to the topic later while at the same time rephrasing the question in order to enhance the credibility of a study

reflexivity

reflecting on the possibility that researches’ own biases might have interfered with the observations or interpretations in order to enhance the credibility of a study

epistemological reflexivity

researcher-induced bias linked to knowledge of the strengths and limitations of the method used to collect data

personal reflexivity

researcher-induced bias linked to the personal beliefs and expectations of the researcher

credibility checks

checking the accuracy of data by asking the participants themselves to read transcripts of interviews or field notes of observations and confirm that the transcripts or notes are an accurate representation of what they said (meant) or did in order to enhance the credibility of a study

thick descriptions

explaining not just the observed behavior itself, but also the context in which it occurred so that the description becomes meaningful to an outsider who never observed the phenomenon firsthand in order to enhance the credibility of a study

acquiescence bias

participants’ tendency to give positive answers whatever the question

social desirability bias

participants’ tendency to respond or behave in a way that they think will make them liked or accepted

dominant respondent bias

the tendency for one participant to influence the behavior and responses of the others in a group interview setting

sensitivity bias

participants’ tendency to answer regular questions honestly, but distort their responses to questions on sensitive subjects

confirmation bias

the researcher has a prior belief and uses the research in an unintentional attempt to confirm that belief

leading questions bias

respondents to an interview are inclined to answer in a certain way because the wording of the question encourages them to do so

question order bias

responses to one question influence the participants’ responses to the following question

sampling bias

the sample is not adequate for the aims of the research

biased reporting

some findings of the study are not equally represented in the research report

non-probabilistic

each member of the target population does NOT have an equal chance of being included in the sample (in qualitative research)

quota sampling

how many people to include in the sample and their characteristics are decided prior to the sample

purposive sampling

the main characteristics of participants are defined in advance and then researchers recruit participants who have these characteristics

theoretical sampling

a type of purposive sampling that stops when the point of data saturation has been reached

data saturation

no new information is obtained from new participants added to the sample

snowball sampling

a small number of participants are invited and asked to invite other people they know who are also of interest for the purposes of the research

convenience sampling

using the sample that is most easily available or accessible

sample-to-population generalization

the researcher starts by identifying the target population and then selects a sample that is representative of this population

theoretical generalization

generalization is made from particular observations to a broader theory, achieved through rigorous analysis and interpretation of research findings

case-to-case generalization (transferability)

generalization is made to a different group of people or a different setting or context