LEARNING AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Social Learning Theory

Learning through observation and imitation of others. Key figures include Albert Bandura.

Observational Learning

Acquiring new behaviors by watching others. Requires attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Vicarious Learning

Learning by observing the consequences of others' actions, influencing behavior without direct experience.

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. Models can be live, verbal, or symbolic.

Insight Learning

A sudden realization of a problem's solution, often after a period of contemplation. Associated with Wolfgang K

\u00f6hler's work with chimpanzees.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Demonstrated by Edward Tolman's rat maze experiments.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of the spatial layout of an environment. Important for navigation and spatial reasoning.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Pioneered by Ivan Pavlov.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning in classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to a conditioned response.

UCS, UCR, CS, CR

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural response to the UCS.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a response.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS.

Extinction

The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.

Higher Order Conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Taste Aversions

A learned avoidance of a particular food after it has been associated with illness. Can occur even if the illness was not caused by the food (one-trial learning).

Biological Preparedness

The predisposition to learn associations between certain stimuli and responses due to evolutionary history. Explains why certain phobias are more common than others.

Habituation

Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure. Considered a simple form of learning.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences, where behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and diminished if followed by punishment. Associated with B.F. Skinner.

The Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated. Developed by Edward Thorndike.

Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Punishment: Any event that weakens the behavior it follows.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior. (e.g., giving a treat for good behavior).

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior. (e.g., taking away chores for good grades).

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior. (e.g., scolding a child for misbehaving).

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. (e.g., taking away phone privileges for breaking curfew).

Primary Reinforcers

Innate reinforcing stimuli, such as food, water, and relief from pain.

Secondary Reinforcers

Learned reinforcing stimuli, such as money, grades, and praise. Gain their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired behavior by reinforcing successive approximations. Used to teach complex behaviors.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for trained animals to revert to their instinctive behaviors, interfering with conditioning.

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which a person or animal feels powerless to avoid negative stimuli, leading to passivity and depression. Demonstrated by Martin Seligman's experiments.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Leads to rapid learning but also rapid extinction if reinforcement stops.

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcing a behavior after a set number of responses. (e.g., being paid for every 5 products made).

Variable Ratio

Reinforcing a behavior after an unpredictable number of responses. Produces high rates of responding. (e.g., gambling).

Fixed Interval

Reinforcing a behavior after a set amount of time has passed. (e.g., getting a paycheck every two weeks).

Variable Interval

Reinforcing a behavior after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. Produces steady rates of responding. (e.g., checking email).

Longitudinal Studies

Research studies that follow the same individuals over a long period of time to observe changes and development.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Research studies that compare different groups of individuals at the same point in time.

Teratogens

Substances or agents that can cause birth defects, such as alcohol, drugs, and certain medications.

Fine Motor Movement

Motor skills involving small movements, such as writing, grasping, and manipulating objects.

Gross Motor Movement

Motor skills involving large movements, such as walking, running, and jumping.

Physical Development

The growth and changes that occur in a person's body over time, including changes in size, strength, and coordination.

Maturation

The process of development that is genetically determined and unfolds naturally over time.

Rooting

A reflex in infants that causes them to turn their head and open their mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek. Helps with feeding.

Critical Period

A specific time in development when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain environmental stimuli or experiences. During this period, the organism must receive the appropriate input to develop a particular skill or trait. After the critical period, it becomes much more difficult or even impossible to acquire the skill or trait.