Psychology Unit 3 Redo (copy)

What does a cross-sectional design compare?

Individuals of different ages at a single point in time.

What is a key limitation of cross-sectional designs?

They cannot determine if age differences are due to development rather than cohort effects.

What does a longitudinal design do?

Tracks the same individuals repeatedly over an extended period.

What is a main advantage of longitudinal designs?

They reveal developmental changes within the same individuals.

What is a major drawback of longitudinal designs?

They are time-consuming and subject to participant dropout.

Why combine cross-sectional and longitudinal methods?

To gain a comprehensive understanding of age differences and developmental changes.

What does developmental psychology focus on?

Both the chronological order of development and thematic issues across the lifespan.

What is meant by stability in development?

Traits and characteristics that remain consistent throughout life.

What is meant by change in development?

Transformations in behavior, abilities, or characteristics influenced by experience and environment.

In the nature vs. nurture debate, what does “nature” refer to?

Genetics and inherited traits that shape development.

In the nature vs. nurture debate, what does “nurture” refer to?

Environmental influences like upbringing, culture, and life experiences.

What is continuous development?

The idea that development is gradual and ongoing without clear-cut stages.

What is discontinuous development?

The belief that development occurs in distinct stages with noticeable shifts.

What is chronological development?

Emphasizes the sequence and timing of age-related milestones.

What is thematic development?

Focuses on overarching patterns and issues that span multiple life stages.

Define a critical period.

A specific phase when certain experiences or stimuli have a particularly strong influence on development.

What is neural plasticity?

The brain’s capacity to change and adapt in response to experiences.

Name the three prenatal stages.

Germinal, embryonic, and fetal.

What happens during the germinal stage?

Rapid cell division and implantation of the fertilized egg (first 2 weeks).

What happens during the embryonic stage?

Development of major organs and body systems (weeks 3–8).

What happens during the fetal stage?

Rapid growth and further maturation of organs (week 9 to birth).

What age range defines infancy and toddlerhood?

Birth to age 2.

What age range defines early childhood?

Ages 2–6.

What age range defines middle childhood?

Ages 6–11.

What age range defines adolescence?

Ages 11–18.

What age range defines early adulthood?

Ages 18–40.

What age range defines middle adulthood?

Ages 40–65.

What age range defines late adulthood?

Ages 65 and older.

What are teratogens?

Substances that can harm a developing fetus and cause birth defects.

Give three common teratogen examples.

Alcohol, certain prescription drugs, and environmental toxins.

What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?

A condition caused by alcohol exposure in utero, leading to physical and cognitive impairments.

How can maternal smoking affect the fetus?

Reduces oxygen and nutrients, leading to low birth weight and potential brain damage.

What are genetic mutations?

Changes in DNA inherited or occurring spontaneously that can cause abnormalities.

Give an example of a chromosomal abnormality.

Down syndrome (an extra copy of chromosome 21).

How can hormonal imbalances in the mother affect the fetus?

Excess androgens can masculinize female fetuses; low thyroid hormone can impair brain development.

Define gross motor skills.

Large-muscle movements such as crawling, walking, and running.

Define fine motor skills.

Precise hand and finger movements like grasping and drawing.

What is the rooting reflex?

An infant’s automatic head turn and sucking response when the cheek is touched.

Name two other infant reflexes.

The Moro (startle) reflex and the stepping reflex.

What did the visual cliff experiment demonstrate?

That depth perception emerges by about 6–8 months of age.

What is imprinting?

Rapid, instinctive learning that occurs during a critical period in some animal species.

What triggers puberty biologically?

Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis.

What is menarche?

The first menstrual period in females.

What is spermarche?

The first ejaculation in males.

What are primary sex characteristics?

Reproductive organs that develop during puberty (e.g., ovaries, testes).

What are secondary sex characteristics?

Physical features that distinguish sexes (e.g., breast development, facial hair).

How is “gender” different from “sex”?

Gender refers to social/cultural roles; sex refers to biological attributes.

Define sexual orientation.

An individual’s pattern of physical, romantic, or emotional attraction.

List five common sexual orientations.

Heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, asexual.

Name three types of factors influencing gender identity and sexual orientation.

Biological (genes, hormones), psychological (experiences, cognition), social (culture, peer influence).

What are societal gender roles?

Norms and expectations for behavior based on gender, such as women as caregivers and men as providers.

What is gender role conflict?

Distress when societal gender expectations clash with an individual’s personal identity.

What are Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.

What is the core idea of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Children actively construct their understanding of the world through interactions with their environment.

At what age does the sensorimotor stage occur?

Birth to age 2.

What key cognitive milestone emerges during the sensorimotor stage?

Development of object permanence.

What characterizes the preoperational stage?

Emergence of symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and animism.

What is egocentrism in the preoperational stage?

The tendency to view the world only from one’s own perspective.

What is animism in Piaget’s preoperational stage?

The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities.

What abilities develop in the concrete operational stage?

Logical thinking, conservation, and reversibility.

What does reversibility refer to?

The ability to mentally reverse actions or operations.

When does the formal operational stage begin?

Around age 11 and up.

What cognitive abilities characterize the formal operational stage?

Abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning, and considering multiple perspectives.

Name one criticism of Piaget’s stage theory.

Development can be continuous and children may achieve skills earlier than he proposed.

What does Vygotsky’s theory emphasize about cognitive development?

That it is largely a social process shaped by interaction with more knowledgeable others.

What role does language play in Vygotsky’s theory?

Language enables thought, self-regulation, and internalized “inner speech.”

Define scaffolding.

Support provided by a more knowledgeable other to help a child perform tasks just beyond their current ability.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.

How does culture influence cognitive development in Vygotsky’s theory?

Cultural tools, values, and traditions shape thinking and learning processes.

Why is collaborative learning important according to Vygotsky?

It allows children to exchange ideas, support each other, and solve problems within their ZPD.

What does the information processing theory focus on?

The development of cognitive skills like memory, attention, and problem-solving as continuous improvements.

How does working memory capacity change with age?

It increases, allowing children to hold and manipulate more information simultaneously.

How does processing speed change over development?

It becomes faster, enabling more efficient task completion.

How does metacognition develop in children?

Children gradually learn to monitor, evaluate, and adjust their thinking strategies.

What instructional strategy does information processing theory support?

Breaking complex tasks into smaller, manageable steps tailored to current processing abilities.

What is the benefit of practice and repetition in cognitive development?

It strengthens memory and skill acquisition through repeated exposure.

How does fluid intelligence change in late adulthood?

It typically declines, reducing the ability to reason with new information.

How does crystallized intelligence change in late adulthood?

It remains stable or even increases, reflecting accumulated knowledge and skills.

Which type of memory is most affected by aging?

Episodic memory (memory for personal events).

What lifestyle factor can help preserve memory in late adulthood?

Staying mentally and physically active.

What defines dementia?

Significant loss of cognitive functioning that interferes with daily life.

List the building blocks of language from smallest to largest.

Phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, sentences.

What is the difference between grammar and semantics?

Grammar governs language structure; semantics governs meaning.

Around what age does the babbling stage occur?

Around 6–8 months.

What characterizes the one-word stage?

Single words used to communicate basic needs or ideas, typically around age 1.

What characterizes the two-word stage?

Basic two-word sentences, typically around age 2.

What is Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?

An innate biological mechanism that facilitates rapid language learning.

What is universal grammar?

A proposed set of structural rules common to all languages.

How do behaviorists explain language acquisition?

Through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning from caregivers.

What is a limitation of the behaviorist view on language development?

It cannot fully explain novel sentence creation beyond imitation.

What do interactionist theories of language development stress?

The interplay of biological predispositions and social-cultural interactions.

What is parentese?

Child-directed speech with simplified grammar, exaggerated intonation, and repetition.

What is joint attention?

Shared focus between a child and caregiver that facilitates language learning.

When does the critical period for language acquisition end?

Around puberty.

How does early bilingual exposure benefit language learning?

It leads to better native-like proficiency and pronunciation in both languages.

What is linguistic determinism?

The hypothesis that language shapes how we think and perceive the world.

How can language influence thought according to Whorf?

Having words for concepts allows clearer and more precise thinking.

Name Bronfenbrenner’s five environmental systems.

Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem.

What does the microsystem include?

Immediate relationships and activities (family, peers, teachers).

What does the mesosystem refer to?

Connections between microsystems (e.g., home–school interactions).