AP Psychology: Development Unit

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. The order in which they occur is fixed.

neural network

refers to interconnected neuron cells

Association areas of the brain

Parts of the four cerebral lobes involved in higher mental processes like thinking, learning, and remembering. These are the last to develop in the process of maturation.

infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3

motor development

the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation- requires contact & familiarity

Harlow's Monkeys

monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother rather than the one with the food- challenged popular thought at the time that attachment was given to the nourishment provider

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Strange Situation Experiment

Mary Ainsworth's lab based technique designed to assess attachment patterns between an infant and an adult in which the mother leaves the baby in an unfamiliar room first time with a stranger second time she leaves the baby alone, and stranger come back before the mother does

still face experiment

caregiver is advised to look blankly at their child to see how their child reacts; shows an infants attachment to them

attachment styles

The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

anxious/preoccupied/resistant attachment

a person feels a sense of uneasiness and the person feels supersensitive to slights and can perceive neglect in the relationship (low self esteem) (multiple relationships)

avoidant/dismissive attachment

a standoffish, excessively disengaged style of relating to loved ones, desire independence and seek less intimacy from others

disorganized/fearful attachment

emerges from disorganized attachment in childhood and is characterized by a contradictory desire to be around others while also keeping them at an emotional distance out of fear of rejection

temperament

basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin

basic trust theory

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is unpredictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Impact of Abuse

Posttraumatic syndrome and lowered self-efficacy, even after the move away from the abusive situation, may never be resolved. Those subjected to even minimal abuse have been found to have a 300% higher risk for death. Older adults who have been victims of violence have more health problems, including bone or joint problems, digestive problems, depression or anxiety, chronic pain, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

self-esteem

how you feel about yourself

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, very inflexible, showing little warmth to the child, high structure & low warmth, "because I said so!"

authoritative parenting

objectively the best: parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making, high structure & warmth

permissive parenting

style of parenting in which parent makes few, if any demands on a child's behavior, no boundaries with child, more like friendship than a parental relationship, low structure & high warmth

uninvolved parenting

A style of parenting in which the parents minimize both the time they spend with their children and their emotional involvement with them and provide for their children's basic needs, but little else. low structure & warmth

Diana Baumrind

researcher who developed a model of parenting styles that included authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive

embryonic stage

the period of prenatal development that lasts from the 2nd week until about the 8th week, organs begin developing, heart begins to beat, central nervous system begins to develop, neural tube closes

fetal stage

the period of prenatal development that lasts from the 9th week until birth, sex organs differentiate, toes & fingers grow, hearing, bones, muscles, & lungs develop, brain undergoes rapid growth

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm- commonly alcohol & tobacco

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

neonatal reflexes

unlearned and involuntary response to a stimulus, can be checked to determine if the nervous system is developing properly- ensure symmetry

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

sucking reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

Moro reflex

Infant reflex where a baby will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement.

tonic neck reflex

turning the head to one side, extending the arm and leg on that side, and flexing the limbs on the opposite side

stepping reflex

Reflex that causes newborn babies to make little stepping motions if they are held upright with their feet just touching a surface

Grasp reflex (palmar and plantar)

Press finger against base of infant's fingers or toes; fingers should curl tightly or toes curl forward

Babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. Object permanence develops. Stranger anxiety develops.

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. They are egocentric and begin to pretend play.

egocentric

self-centered, cannot look at the world through anyone's eyes but their own

Animism (Piaget)

the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action

pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. They can demonstrate understanding of conservation and reversibility.

conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Reversibility

principle that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. Moral reasoning and metacognition develops

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

Emphasis on mental processes beginning externally with our social interactions with others

More Knowledgable Other (MKO) (Vygotsky)

Someone with higher cognitive abilities who guides a child and models behavior to them

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Reciprocal Teaching

A small-group teaching method based on principles of question generation; through instruction and modeling, teachers foster metacognitive skills primarily to improve the reading performance of students who have poor comprehension.

Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)

the difference between what a child can do on their own and what can be accomplished with some assistance

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

Trust v. Mistrust

birth to one year, infancy - if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt

Between the ages of 1 and 3 yo, Children began to assert their independence, if children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive…which then become overly dependent on others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities

intiative v. guilt

3-6 yo, developing a sense of curiousity about the world around them, asking, "Why?," allowed to explore the world with caregiver support to develop ambition and responsibility- their curiousity must be supported

Industry v. Inferiority

age 6 to puberty, elementary school - learn the pleasures of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior, compare themself to peers and are measured by a formal system (grades)

identity vs. role confusion

12-18 yo, Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves, create a sense of self, remaining true to their beliefs & values

Marcia's Four Identity Statuses

diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, achievement

Foreclosure

1st step in identity discovery: commitment to an identity with little exploration of alternatives, acceptance of familial and communal ideas as own. low exploration, high commitment.

Diffusion

2nd step in identity discovery: identity not yet considered, not exploring. low exploration and commitment

moratorium

3rd step in identity discovery: options are being considered, actively seeking and making decisions about the importance of certain values & beliefs, high exploration & low commitment

achievement

individual values and goals have emerged, high exploration & commitment

Adolescent Egocentrism (Elkind)

David Elkind's term for the tendency of young teenagers to feel that their actions are at the center of everyone else's consciousness, inability to distinguish between perception of others' thoughts about them and what others actually think about them- results in imaginary audience & personal fable

imaginary audience

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent's thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are

personal fable

A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they believe they are so special and unique that other people cannot understand them and risky behaviors will not harm them

Intimacy v. Isolation

20s to early 40s, young adulthood - struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel isolated

Generativity v. Stagnation

40s to 60s, middle adulthood - people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they feel a lack of purpose for their life, mid-life crisis

integrity v. despair

late 60s to death, late adulthood - when reflecting on their life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).

preconventional morality

Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking, ages 3-8

conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior, ages 8-13

postconventional morality

third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and that may be in disagreement with accepted social norms- adulthood

obidience and punishment orientation

1st stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, doing things to avoid punishment

Self-Interest Orientation

2nd stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, Individuals focus on the behavior that will be in their best interest, with limited interest in the needs of others ("What's in it for me?")

intrapersonal accord and conventionality

3rd stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, meeting social expectations

authority and maintaining social order

4th stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, obeying laws and maintaining the established social order

social contract and individual rights

5th stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, social agreements and prioritizing human life

universal ethical principles

6th stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, upholding peace, justice, & human rights

identical vs fraternal twins

identical twins share a monozygotic embryo, and share all of their genes; fraternal twins are dizygotic, and share 50% of their genes

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Alzheimer's disease (AD)

A progressive disease that destroys the brain's neurons, gradually impairing memory, thinking, language, and other cognitive functions, resulting in the complete inability to care for oneself; the most common cause of dementia. Decreased acetylcholine (ACh)

Parkinson's disease (PD)

a chronic, degenerative central nervous disorder in which there is a progressive loss of control over movement, resulting in tremors and a shuffling gait. Decreased dopamine

Continuous and Discontinuous Stages of Development

Continuity refers to the view that development is a gradual, continuous process. Discontinuity refers to the view that development occurs in a series of distinct stages.

maternal illnesses

Health conditions in a mother that can affect fetal development.

genetic mutations

Changes in the genetic material of cells that passes from one generation to another.

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

menarche

onset of menstruation

spermarche

first occurrence of ejaculation

sex

the biological distinction between females and males