Biological Psychology

AP psychology unit 2 with Miss Larochelle (HMHS)

behavior genetics

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

environment

every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes

identical (monozygotic) twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brother and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to to genes. Varies depending on the range of populations and environments studied

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change, breeding for desirable traits

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely to be passed on to succeeding generations

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to change

electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measures by electrodes placed on the scalp

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans, shows brain functions as well as its structure

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

cerebellum

the “little brain“ at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion, specifically fear and aggression

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movement and in making plans and judgements

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; including areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that register and process body, touch, and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor of sensory function; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

plasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

nervous systems

the body’s speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural “cables“ connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

pituitary gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

cell body

the core section of the neuron (nucleus), contains genetic information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities

hippocampus

primarily responsible for forming and consolidating new memories

resting potential

the condition of the neuron when it is resting, the inside is more negative than the outside

dopamine

a type of neurotransmitter and hormone, plays a role in many important body functions, including movement, memory and pleasurable reward and motivation

glutamate

the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter released by nerve cells in your brain,plays a major role in learning and memory

acetylcholine

an important neurotransmitter that plays a role in brain functions, such as memory, and body functions, such as muscle contractions to move your muscles

ghrelin

a hormone that is known as an appetite increaser

hemispheres

the left or right half of the brain

hemispheric specialization

the differential role of the left or right brain side in processing a specific neuronal task or behavior

aphasia

a language disorder that affects how you communicate, caused by damage in an area of the brain that controls language expression and comprehension

neuroplasticity

the brain’s capacity to continue growing and evolving in response to life experiences, the ability for the brain to adapt or change over time, by creating new neurons and building new networks

reflex arc

the basic unit of a reflex, which involves neural pathways acting on an impulse before that impulse has reached the brain, synapses in the spinal cord

excitatory neurotransmitter

“excite“ the neuron and cause it to “fire off the message,“ meaning, the message continues to be passed along to the next cell, example include glutamate, epinephrine, and norepinephrine

serotonin

5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), a neurotransmitter with and integral physiological role in the human body; it regulates various activities, including behavior, mood, memory, and gastrointestinal homeostasis; your body’s natural “feel good“ chemical

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

an amino acid that function as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitters for the central nervous system, functions to reduce neuronal excitability by inhibiting nerve transmission; controls anxiety, stress, and fear

adrenaline

a stress hormone also known as epinephrine, produced by the adrenal glands and released into the bloodstream, it is part of the fight or flight response

melatonin

a hormone that your brain produces in response to darkness, helps with the timing of your circadian rhythm (24-hour internal clock) and sleep

executive functioning

a set a mental skills including working memory, flexible thinking, and self-control; trouble with it can make it hard to focus, follow directions, and handle emotions etc

Broca’s area

region of the brain that contains neurons involved in speech function, serves as a vital role in the generation of articulate speech

contralateral hemispheric organization

the property that the hemispheres of the cerebrum and the thalamus represent mainly the contralateral side of the body (right side of the brain controls the left side of the body and the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body)

reticular formation

a complex network of brainstem nuclei and neurons that serve as a major integration and relay center for many vital brain systems to coordinate functions necessary for survival; the primary regulator arousal and consciousness

depolarization

movement of a cell’s membrane potential to a more positive value, shifts the electrical charge distribution so that the cell is less negatively charged compared to the environment

inhibitory neurotransmitter

blocks or prevents the chemical message from being passed along any farther, examples include GABA, glycine, and serotonin

norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter of the brain that plays an essential role in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions, increases alertness, arousal, and attention

substance P

a neurotransmitter present in the brain and spinal cord, where it is known to be involved in pain signaling

leptin

a hormone produced by the body’s fat cells that helps manage energy, signals to your brain when you need food or when you’re satiated

oxytocin

a hormone that stimulates uterine contractions in childbirth and lactation after childbirth; also promotes pair bonding, group cohesion, and social trust

prefrontal cortex

the gray matter of the anterior part of the frontal lobe that is highly developed in humans and plays a role in the regulation of complex cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning

Wernicke’s area

region of the brain that contains motor neurons involved in the comprehension of speech

axon

the neuron extension that passes message through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building blocks of the nervous system

dendrites

a neurons bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptors sites on the receiving neuron,thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

“morphine within“ - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and langauge)

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment