AP Euro Midterm

Northern Renaissance

Northern Renaissance

• led to the Protesdant refermation

• Location: Happened in Northern Europe, especially in the Netherlands, Germany, France, and England.

• Humanism: Focused on combining learning the classics with Christian values.

• Art: Known for detailed, realistic art with oil paints. Famous artists include Jan van Eyck and Albrecht Dürer.

• Christian Humanism: Thinkers like Erasmus and Thomas More wanted to reform the Church and emphasize personal faith.

• Printing Press: Johannes Gutenberg’s invention spread ideas and helped increase literacy.

• Key Figures: Erasmus, Thomas More, Albrecht Dürer.

Southern Renaissance

• Location: Southern Renaissance occurred in Italy,especially in cities like Florence, Venice, and Rome.

• Focus of Humanism: Southern Renaissance humanism was more centered on classical Greek and Roman texts, while Northern Renaissance humanism focused more on Christian humanism and reforming the Church.

• Art Style: Southern Renaissance art used techniques like perspective and idealized human form, with artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

• Religion: The Southern Renaissance was influenced by the Catholic Church and the Vatican, whereas the Northern Renaissance, especially through figures like Erasmus, sought religious reform, leading to the Protestant Reformation.

• Philosophy and Science: Southern Renaissance thinkers like Galileo emphasized scientific exploration and the study of nature.

• Patronage: In the Southern Renaissance, wealthy families like the Medici were key patrons of art and culture

Petrarch

• Italian Scholar and Poet: Known as the "father of Humanism," Petrarch revived interest in classical Greek and Roman literature.

• Key Work: His Canzoniere (Song Book), a collection of poems about his love for Laura, became one of the most influential works of Italian literature.

• Philosophy: Petrarch emphasized the importance of studying ancient texts to better understand human nature and society, laying the foundation for Renaissance humanism.

• Impact: His ideas encouraged a focus on individual experience, emotion, and reason, influencing later Renaissance thinkers and writers.

• Latin Works: Besides his poetry, Petrarch wrote extensively in Latin, including his Letters to the Ancient Dead, in which he sought to connect with classical thinkers.

Pico della Mirandola

• Philosopher and Scholar: best known for his work Oration on the Dignity of Man, which is considered a key text of Renaissance humanism.

• Key Ideas: Pico argued that humans have the unique ability to shape their own destiny through free will, a radical idea at the time. He believed that humans could achieve greatness by using their intellect and free will to choose between good and evil, positioning humanity between angels and animals in the cosmic hierarchy.

• Dignity of Man: In his Oration, Pico famously stated that humans were endowed with the ability to rise to the heights of angels or fall to the depths of animals, depending on their choices. This idea reinforced the Renaissance belief in the power of human potential and individual choice.

• Legacy: Pico’s vision of human dignity and the power of individual choice influenced Renaissance thinkers, as well as later ideas about human rights and the potential for personal growth. His belief in the compatibility of different philosophical systems helped pave the way for more open-minded and interdisciplinary approaches to knowledge during the Renaissance.

Niccolò Machiavelli

• Political Theorist: Niccolò Machiavelli was an Italian Renaissance diplomat, philosopher, and writer, best known for his political treatise The Prince (1513), which is one of the most famous works on political theory.

• Key Ideas: Machiavelli is often associated with political realism. In The Prince, he argued that rulers should focus on pragmatism and effectiveness, rather than moral or ethical concerns. His famous quote "the ends justify the means" suggests that rulers may need to use deceit, manipulation, and cruelty to maintain power and achieve political stability.

• View on Power: Machiavelli believed that a successful ruler should be both loved and feared, but if one had to choose, it is better to be feared than loved. He argued that political leaders must be flexible and willing to act immorally when necessary to secure their rule and the stability of the state.

• Republicanism: In his other works, such as Discourses on Livy, Machiavelli explored the idea of republican government, stressing the importance of civic virtue and active participation by citizens in maintaining a free state. He admired the Roman Republic and believed that mixed government (a balance of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy) could help prevent corruption.

• Impact: Machiavelli’s ideas had a lasting influence on political theory. His work helped shape the development of modern political science, particularly in the areas of statecraft, power, and diplomacy. His name has become synonymous with political cunning and manipulation, often referred to as "Machiavellian."

Baldassare Castiglione

• Author and Diplomat: Baldassare Castiglione was an Italian diplomat and writer, best known for his work The Book of the Courtier (1528), a treatise on the ideal qualities of a courtier (an attendant at a royal court).

• Key Ideas: In The Book of the Courtier, Castiglione described the perfect courtier as a well-rounded individual, skilled in various arts, languages, and sports, as well as possessing qualities like grace, charm, and wisdom. He emphasized the importance of education, manners, and eloquence, suggesting that a courtier should also be morally virtuous, but able to adapt to the demands of politics and power.

• Ideal of the "Renaissance Man": Castiglione’s vision of the courtier contributed to the Renaissance ideal of the “Renaissance man” an individual who excels in a wide range of fields, blending intellectual, artistic, and physical abilities. This concept reflected the Renaissance focus on personal achievement and self-improvement.

• Social and Political Context: The book offered guidance for navigating the complexities of court life and political diplomacy, encouraging courtiers to be both morally upright and politically savvy. It reflected the changing nature of politics during the Renaissance, where courtiers often played key roles in diplomacy and governance.

• Legacy: The Book of the Courtier became an influential guide to etiquette and the ideal qualities of elites in Renaissance Europe, shaping the behavior of courtiers and aristocrats. Castiglione’s work remains an important contribution to the understanding of Renaissance culture and the development of courtly life.

Christian Humanism

• Definition:

  • Christian Humanism is a branch of humanism that emerged in Northern Europe during the Renaissance, combining classical humanist ideals with Christian faith. It emphasized the potential for humans to improve morally and spiritually through education, with a focus on biblical studies and the application of Christian teachings.

• Core Beliefs:

  • Return to Christian Scriptures: Christian humanists believed in studying the Bible in its original languages (Greek and Hebrew) to understand its true message and promote religious reform.

  • Moral and Ethical Improvement: They focused on the idea that human beings could improve morally and spiritually through education, striving for virtue and inner piety.

  • Critique of the Church: Many Christian humanists criticized the corruption within the Catholic Church, calling for reforms to return to a more personal, authentic Christian faith.

  • Emphasis on Education: Like classical humanists, Christian humanists valued education, especially in philosophy, languages, and history, but with a focus on the Christian worldview.

• Impact:

  • Influenced the Protestant Reformation by providing intellectual foundations for reformers like Martin Luther.

  • Led to the creation of new translations of the Bible, making it more accessible to the public (e.g., Erasmus' Greek New Testament).

  • Contributed to religious and social reforms in Northern Europe, with a focus on improving both the individual’s moral life and the Church’s role in society.

• Key Figures:

  • Erasmus: One of the most prominent Christian humanists, who advocated for reform in the Church and promoted a return to the original Christian texts.

  • Thomas More: Author of Utopia, who blended humanist thought with Christian ideals, promoting social and political reforms.

  • Johann Reuchlin: A scholar who contributed to the study of Hebrew and the Bible.

Mannerism

• Definition:

  • Mannerism is an artistic style that emerged in the late Renaissance, around the 1520s, as a reaction against the balanced harmony and naturalism of High Renaissance art. It is characterized by exaggerated proportions, complex compositions, and a sense of tension or artificiality in the depiction of figures.

• Core Features:

  • Exaggerated Proportions: Figures are often elongated or distorted, creating a sense of tension or unease.

  • Complex Poses and Compositions: Mannerist artists favored intricate, dynamic poses and crowded, sometimes chaotic compositions.

  • Unnatural Colors and Lighting: Use of unconventional, vivid color schemes and dramatic, often unrealistic lighting effects.

  • Artificiality: Unlike the naturalism of the High Renaissance, Mannerist works often seem more stylized and less grounded in reality, with an emphasis on aesthetics over realism.

• Impact:

  • Marked a shift in art from the harmony and clarity of the Renaissance to a more expressive and experimental style.

  • Influenced later art movements, particularly Baroque, which incorporated some of its dramatic effects but moved toward more emotional and spiritual intensity.

• Key Figures:

  • El Greco: Known for his elongated figures and dramatic use of color and light.

  • Parmigianino: Famous for his works like Madonna with the Long Neck, which showcase distorted figures and complex compositions.

  • Jacopo da Pontormo: Known for his use of vivid color and twisted, exaggerated poses in works like The Descent from the Cross.

Printing Press

• Definition:

  • The printing press is a mechanical device used to mass-produce written material by transferring ink onto paper using movable type. It was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century, around 1440.

• Core Features:

  • Movable Type: The press used individual metal letters and characters that could be arranged and rearranged to form text.

  • Mass Production: Allowed for the mass production of books and documents, making printed material more affordable and accessible.

  • Efficiency: Greatly increased the speed and reduced the cost of producing written works compared to hand-copying methods.

• Impact:

  • Spread of Knowledge: Revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge, making books, especially the Bible, more widely available to a broader audience.

  • Religious Reformation: Played a crucial role in the spread of Protestant ideas during the Reformation, as reformers like Martin Luther used the press to distribute their writings.

  • Scientific Revolution: Facilitated the rapid spread of new scientific ideas, enabling scholars to share discoveries and build upon each other's work.

  • Literacy and Education: Contributed to the increase in literacy rates and the spread of education across Europe.

• Key Figure:

  • Johannes Gutenberg: Inventor of the printing press, whose invention allowed for the mass production of books, the most famous of which is the Gutenberg Bible.

El Greco

• Who he is:

  • El Greco (1541–1614), born Doménikos Theotokópoulos, was a Greek-Spanish Renaissance painter, sculptor, and architect, widely regarded as one of the most significant figures in the Spanish Renaissance. His unique style blends Byzantine, Venetian, and Spanish influences.

• Core Beliefs and Contributions:

  • Mannerist Style: El Greco is known for his elongated forms, dramatic use of color, and intense emotional expression, which are hallmarks of Mannerism. His work often emphasizes spirituality and mysticism.

  • Religious Themes: Much of his art is deeply religious, depicting Christian subjects, saints, and biblical scenes, often with a focus on conveying spiritual depth and intensity.

  • Innovative Use of Color and Light: El Greco's vibrant color palette and unusual lighting techniques were innovative for his time, adding to the emotional impact of his works.

• Impact:

  • Influence on Modern Art: His dramatic, expressive style influenced later artists, including the Baroque painters and modern artists like Picasso.

  • Unique Visual Language: El Greco's work stood apart from the more naturalistic art of his contemporaries, helping to define a unique, spiritualized approach to painting.

  • Symbol of Spanish Art: He became a symbol of Spanish national identity in art, contributing to the development of Spanish Baroque painting.

• Key Works:

  • The Burial of the Count of Orgaz: One of his most famous works, this painting blends earthly and heavenly realms, showcasing his unique approach to religious subject matter.

  • View of Toledo: A dramatic landscape that mixes reality and imagination, known for its expressive sky and use of color.

  • The Adoration of the Shepherds: A vivid depiction of the nativity scene with unusual perspectives and a focus on light and emotion.

  • St. Maurice and the African Martyrs: A religious work depicting a group of saints, reflecting his ability to combine religious devotion with artistic expression.

Jan van Eyck

• Who he is:

  • Jan van Eyck (c. 1390–1441) was a Flemish painter, considered one of the most important figures in early Northern Renaissance art. He is renowned for his innovative use of oil paint and his mastery of detail, light, and texture.

• Core Beliefs and Contributions:

  • Development of Oil Painting: Van Eyck is often credited with perfecting the use of oil paint, allowing for greater depth, vivid colors, and intricate details in his work.

  • Realism and Detail: His paintings are known for their incredible attention to detail and realism, capturing texture, light, and the human form with precision.

  • Symbolism: Many of his works contain symbolic elements, particularly in religious scenes, where objects, gestures, and settings carry deeper meanings.

• Impact:

  • Influence on Northern Renaissance: Van Eyck helped define the Northern Renaissance style, influencing other artists in Europe, particularly in the use of oil painting and meticulous attention to detail.

  • Legacy in Portraiture and Altarpieces: His work influenced both religious altarpieces and portraiture, setting a standard for realism and detail that would shape European art for centuries.

  • Preservation of Visual Detail: Van Eyck’s techniques and innovations in oil painting allowed for the preservation of intricate details that brought new levels of realism to art.

• Key Works:

  • The Arnolfini Portrait: One of his most famous works, this painting depicts a wealthy couple, showcasing his skill in rendering texture, light, and the symbolism of everyday objects.

  • The Ghent Altarpiece: A monumental altarpiece featuring detailed religious scenes, it is known for its vibrant colors and intricate symbolism.

  • The Madonna in the Church: A painting that showcases his religious themes, with an emphasis on architectural space and divine presence.

  • The Virgin and Child with Chancellor Rolin: A portrait of a patron with religious figures, demonstrating van Eyck’s ability to blend portraiture and religious themes.

Baroque Art

• Definition:

  • Baroque art is a style that emerged in the early 17th century in Europe, characterized by dramatic, exaggerated motion, clear detail, deep color, and a sense of grandeur. It often aimed to evoke emotion and awe, both through its visual richness and its focus on light and shadow.

• Core Features:

  • Dramatic Use of Light and Shadow (Chiaroscuro): Artists used stark contrasts between light and dark to create a sense of depth and highlight emotion or movement.

  • Emotional Intensity: Baroque art is often characterized by intense emotional expression, capturing moments of action, tension, or religious fervor.

  • Movement and Energy: Figures in Baroque art are often depicted in dynamic poses, conveying a sense of motion, energy, and drama.

  • Ornamentation and Grandeur: Baroque art frequently featured elaborate details, grand scale, and rich textures to convey power, often used in religious, political, or royal contexts.

  • Realism and Detail: Despite the dramatic flair, Baroque art often includes highly detailed, realistic depictions of figures and objects.

• Impact:

  • Church and State: Baroque art became closely associated with the Counter-Reformation in the Catholic Church and the power of monarchs, often used to convey religious messages or reinforce royal authority.

  • Development of New Genres: The Baroque period saw the development of new genres, such as still lifes, landscapes, and genre painting (depicting everyday life), alongside traditional religious and historical themes.

  • Influence on Later Art Movements: Baroque art influenced later movements such as Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism, especially in its focus on emotional expression and the power of visual imagery.

• Key Artists:

  • Caravaggio: Known for his realistic, dramatic use of light and shadow, as seen in works like The Calling of Saint Matthew.

  • Peter Paul Rubens: Famous for his energetic compositions and sensual depictions of mythological and religious themes.

  • Rembrandt: A master of light and shadow, particularly in his emotional portraits and self-portraits.

  • Gian Lorenzo Bernini: A sculptor and architect, known for his dynamic, expressive sculptures like The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa and his work on St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican.

  • Diego Velázquez: Known for his realistic portraiture, particularly Las Meninas, which plays with perspective and the relationship between the viewer and the subjects.

Pantheon in Paris

• What it is:

  • The Panthéon in Paris is a neoclassical mausoleum located in the Latin Quarter. Originally built as a church dedicated to St. Genevieve, it was transformed into a national monument during the French Revolution and now serves as a burial place for notable French figures.

• Architectural Style:

  • Neoclassical Architecture: The Panthéon is designed in the neoclassical style, inspired by ancient Greek and Roman temples. It features a massive dome, Corinthian columns, and a portico with a grand façade, reflecting the Enlightenment ideals of reason, order, and rationality.

  • Influence of Ancient Rome: Its design was influenced by the Roman Pantheon, especially its large, domed rotunda and the use of classical architectural elements like columns and arches.

• Historical Significance:

  • French Revolution: During the Revolution, the Panthéon was secularized and repurposed as a mausoleum for revolutionary heroes, a symbolic gesture reflecting the Republic’s break from religious authority.

  • National Monument: It became a place of national memory and honor, where figures such as Voltaire, Rousseau, Victor Hugo, and Émile Zola were buried.

  • Symbol of French Identity: The Panthéon has been a symbol of national pride and the Republic, reflecting the values of the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and later the ideals of the Republic.

• Key Features:

  • Dome: The Panthéon’s impressive dome is one of the most notable features, towering over the city and offering a striking view.

  • Famous Graves: It houses the tombs of many famous French figures, including writers, philosophers, scientists, and political leaders, making it a site of national heritage.

  • Frescos and Artwork: The interior features various neoclassical artworks, including murals by artists like Pierre-Narcisse Guérin and a stunning fresco by Antoine-Jean Gros.

• Legacy and Impact:

  • The Panthéon has become an iconic symbol of French culture and history, representing the country’s intellectual and revolutionary heritage. Its neoclassical design influenced other buildings worldwide and contributed to the spread of classical revival architecture in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Astrolabe

• Definition:

  • The astrolabe is an ancient instrument used for solving problems related to time and the position of the stars. It is primarily used for astronomical measurements, particularly the altitude of celestial bodies, and was a key tool for navigation and understanding the night sky.

• Function and Use:

  • Astronomical Measurements: Astrolabes were used to measure the altitude of stars and planets, which could help determine the time of day or night, as well as the location of celestial bodies.

  • Navigational Tool: In navigation, the astrolabe helped sailors determine their latitude by measuring the angle between the horizon and a star, like the North Star.

  • Timekeeping: Astrolabes could be used to tell time by observing the position of the Sun or stars. Some models even featured time scales for this purpose.

  Impact:

  • Advancement in Astronomy: The astrolabe was a crucial tool for astronomers in the medieval Islamic world and Renaissance Europe, advancing the study of celestial movements.

  • Guidance for Exploration: It played a significant role in the Age of Exploration, allowing navigators to chart their course more accurately, especially for determining latitude on sea voyages.

  • Cultural Influence: Used by scholars, sailors, and astronomers, the astrolabe became a symbol of scientific advancement and curiosity in the Islamic Golden Age and Renaissance Europe.

• Legacy:

  • The astrolabe was eventually replaced by more accurate instruments, such as the sextant, but it remained an important educational tool for centuries, representing a key development in the history of science and navigation.

Sternpost Rudder

Definition:

• The sternpost rudder is a device used for steering a ship, mounted at the rear (stern) of the vessel. It consists of a vertical post, often with a flat, movable blade (rudder), which can be turned to change the direction of the ship.

• Impact:

  • Advancement in Maritime Navigation: The sternpost rudder revolutionized ship design and navigation, making it easier to steer large ships and increasing their ability to navigate through open waters and during trade or warfare.

  • Age of Exploration: It played a crucial role in the Age of Exploration, enabling explorers and traders to more effectively navigate the seas, facilitating the expansion of global trade and the discovery of new lands.

  • Shipbuilding Innovations: The introduction of the sternpost rudder led to improvements in shipbuilding, influencing the design of vessels for both military and commercial purposes.

• Legacy:

  • The sternpost rudder became the standard for ship steering and remained in use for centuries, paving the way for more advanced technologies in modern navigation. Its development marked a significant milestone in the history of naval engineering.

Jesuits

• Who they are: The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, is a Catholic religious order founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola.

• What they did: Focused on education, missionary work, and defending the Catholic faith during the Counter-Reformation.

• Impact: Played a major role in the spread of Catholicism in Asia, Africa, and the Americas; influenced education and science, founding schools and universities.

• Role in AP Euro: Key to the Counter-Reformation, helping the Catholic Church regain influence in Europe and abroad, and shaping European intellectual and religious life.

Dutch East India Company

• What it is: A powerful Dutch trading company founded in 1602 to manage trade in the East Indies (Southeast Asia) and beyond.

• What it did: Controlled spice trade, established colonies, and engaged in military actions to protect Dutch interests in Asia.

• Impact: Played a central role in the rise of the Dutch Republic as a major commercial and naval power, contributing to the global spread of capitalism and European imperialism.

• Role in AP Euro: A key example of early modern capitalism, demonstrating the growth of joint-stock companies, global trade networks, and European expansion during the Age of Exploration.

British East India Company

• What it is: A British trading company founded in 1600 to control trade between Britain and the East Indies (Southeast Asia), later focusing on India and China.

• What it did: Established a monopoly on British trade in Asia, involved in the production of tea, cotton, and opium, and played a key role in British imperial control of India.

• Impact: Helped Britain become a dominant global economic and imperial power; its exploitation of India laid the foundation for British colonial rule in the region.

• Role in AP Euro: Illustrates the rise of British colonialism and the role of economic entities in shaping imperialism, global trade, and the expansion of European influence during the early modern period.

Commercial Revolution

• What it is: The Commercial Revolution refers to the expansion of trade and business that took place in Europe from the 11th to the 18th century.

• What it did: Led to the rise of a capitalist economy, growth of banking, development of joint-stock companies, and increased exploration and colonization.

• Impact: Increased wealth, transformed European economies, facilitated the rise of powerful nation-states, and contributed to the development of global trade networks.

• Role in AP Euro: Demonstrates the transition from feudal economies to more market-based economies, setting the stage for the Industrial Revolution and modern capitalism.

Agricultural Revolution

• What it is: The Agricultural Revolution refers to a series of innovations in farming techniques and technology that took place in Europe between the 16th and 19th centuries.

• What it did: Introduced new farming methods, crop rotation, selective breeding of livestock, and new machinery like the seed drill, increasing crop yields and efficiency.

• Impact: Led to surplus food production, population growth, and the displacement of labor from agriculture, contributing to urbanization and the Industrial Revolution.

• Role in AP Euro: Highlights the shift from traditional agrarian economies to more modern, commercial agriculture, and sets the stage for the Industrial Revolution by increasing food production and labor productivity.

Peace of Westphalia

• What it is: The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic.

• What it did: Redrew the map of Europe, recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland, and granting greater religious freedoms to Protestant and Catholic regions.

• Impact: Marked the beginning of the modern state system, emphasizing sovereignty and non-interference in the internal affairs of states.

• Role in AP Euro: Key event in the development of the modern European state system and the decline of the influence of the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire in European politics.

Peace of Augsburg

• What it is: The Peace of Augsburg, signed in 1555, was an agreement between the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the Lutheran princes of Germany.

• What it did: Allowed rulers of the Holy Roman Empire to choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism as the official religion of their territories, establishing the principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose realm, his religion").

• Impact: Temporarily settled religious conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire, but left tensions unresolved, contributing to future conflicts like the Thirty Years' War.

• Role in AP Euro: Highlights the religious division in Europe during the Reformation and the challenges of religious coexistence, shaping the trajectory of Protestant-Catholic relations in early modern Europe.

Pragmatic Sanction

• What it is: The Pragmatic Sanction, issued in 1713 by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, was a legal decree that ensured his daughter, Maria Theresa, could inherit the Habsburg lands despite being a woman.

• What it did: Allowed Maria Theresa to succeed her father as ruler of the Habsburg Empire, which included Austria, Hungary, and other territories, by declaring that the lands could pass to a female heir if necessary.

• Impact: Led to a series of conflicts, particularly the War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748), as other European powers contested her right to rule.

• Role in AP Euro: Illustrates the complexities of dynastic politics in early modern Europe and the challenges posed by succession laws and gender in monarchical rule.

Concordat of 1801

• What it is: The Concordat of 1801 was an agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII that redefined the relationship between the French state and the Catholic Church after the French Revolution.

• What it did: Recognized Catholicism as the "religion of the majority of French citizens," but maintained state control over church affairs, including appointing bishops. It also restored some church property confiscated during the Revolution.

• Impact: Helped restore stability to France by reconciling the church and the state, while ensuring the government's control over religious practices. It marked a key moment in Napoleon’s consolidation of power.

• Role in AP Euro: Demonstrates Napoleon's efforts to balance revolutionary ideals with pragmatic governance, stabilizing France while preserving the secular nature of the French Revolution.

Ferdinand and Isabella

• Who they are: Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile were the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, whose marriage in 1469 unified Spain under one crown.

• What they did: Completed the Reconquista by conquering the Kingdom of Granada in 1492, expelled Jews and Muslims from Spain through the Alhambra Decree, and sponsored Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage to the Americas.

• Impact: Their reign marked the beginning of Spain's rise as a global power, consolidating Spanish territories and initiating the Age of Exploration and colonization.

• Role in AP Euro: Key figures in the unification of Spain, the spread of Catholicism, and the expansion of European influence through overseas exploration.

Henry VIII

• Who he is: Henry VIII (1491–1547) was the King of England from 1509 to 1547, known for his role in the English Reformation.

• What he did: Broke with the Catholic Church to establish the Church of England, mainly to secure an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which led to the English monarchy gaining control over religious matters in England. He also oversaw significant political, social, and economic changes, including the dissolution of monasteries.

• Impact: Henry’s religious reforms reshaped England’s relationship with the Catholic Church, laid the foundation for Protestantism in England, and had lasting effects on English politics and society.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the intersection of religion and politics in the early modern period, demonstrating the rise of state-controlled religion and the shift from Catholicism to Protestantism in England.

Elizabeth I

• Who she is: Elizabeth I (1533–1603) was the Queen of England from 1558 to 1603, known as the "Virgin Queen" and the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty.

• What she did: Restored Protestantism in England after her sister Mary I's Catholic reign, defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, and presided over the Elizabethan Era, a time of cultural flourishing and English exploration.

• Impact: Strengthened the Protestant Church in England, expanded England's influence globally, and established the country as a major European power. Her reign marked the height of the English Renaissance.

• Role in AP Euro: Key figure in the consolidation of Protestantism in England and the development of England as a major imperial and naval power, highlighting religious, political, and cultural changes in the early modern period.

Henry IV

• Who he is: Henry IV (1553–1610) was the King of France from 1589 to 1610 and the first monarch of the Bourbon dynasty.

• What he did: Ended the French Wars of Religion by converting to Catholicism, famously stating, "Paris is well worth a Mass," and issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, granting religious tolerance to Huguenots (French Protestants).

• Impact: His reign brought stability to France after decades of religious conflict, promoted economic growth, and laid the foundations for the absolutist state that would be developed by his son, Louis XIII.

• Role in AP Euro: Highlights the challenges of religious conflict in early modern Europe and the importance of political compromise in maintaining power, as well as the rise of the Bourbon dynasty.

Cardinal Richelieu

• Who he is: Cardinal Richelieu (1585–1642) was a French clergyman and statesman who served as chief minister to King Louis XIII from 1624 until his death.

• What he did: Strengthened the central authority of the monarchy, reduced the power of the nobility, and centralized government. He played a key role in France’s involvement in the Thirty Years' War and worked to weaken the influence of the Habsburgs.

• Impact: Richelieu’s policies laid the groundwork for absolutism in France, promoting the idea of a strong, centralized state. He also increased royal control over religious and political life, reducing the power of Protestant Huguenots and the nobility.

• Role in AP Euro: A key figure in the development of absolute monarchy in France, Richelieu's policies exemplify the strengthening of royal power and the shift toward a centralized, secular state.

Louis XIV

• Who he is: Louis XIV (1638–1715), also known as the "Sun King," was the King of France from 1643 to 1715 and the longest-reigning monarch in European history.

• What he did: Centralized power in the monarchy, transforming France into an absolute monarchy. He expanded French territory, built the lavish Palace of Versailles, and exerted control over the nobility. His wars, such as the War of Spanish Succession, aimed to increase French influence in Europe.

• Impact: Louis XIV’s reign exemplified the peak of absolutism, with the monarch having almost total control over the state. His policies also led to financial strain and war debts, but he left a lasting legacy of French culture, art, and architecture.

• Role in AP Euro: Symbolizes the absolute monarchy and the centralization of power in early modern Europe, influencing the political structure and the relationship between monarchs and their subjects.

Louis XVI

• Who he is: Louis XVI (1754–1793) was the King of France from 1774 to 1792, the last monarch before the French Revolution.

• What he did: Attempted to reform France’s financial crisis through measures like taxing the nobility and convening the Estates-General, which led to the outbreak of the French Revolution. He was eventually arrested, tried for treason, and executed by guillotine in 1793.

• Impact: His inability to manage France's financial and political problems contributed to the fall of the monarchy and the rise of revolutionary forces, marking a significant turning point in European history.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the collapse of absolute monarchy and the radical shift towards republicanism in France, marking the end of the Ancien Régime and the beginning of the French Republic.

Huguenots

• Who they are: The Huguenots were French Protestants, primarily followers of John Calvin, who became a significant religious and political group in France during the 16th and early 17th centuries.

• What they did: They faced persecution from the Catholic majority in France, leading to the French Wars of Religion. Many fled to other countries, particularly after the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572.

• Impact: The Huguenots were instrumental in the spread of Protestantism in France, but their conflicts with Catholics contributed to religious tensions and wars. The Edict of Nantes in 1598 provided some religious tolerance, though their influence waned in the 17th century.

• Role in AP Euro: Reflect the religious conflict and tension during the Reformation and the subsequent wars between Catholics and Protestants in Europe, particularly in France.

War of the Three Henrys

• What it is: The War of the Three Henrys (1587–1589) was a civil war in France during the French Wars of Religion, fought between Henry III (King of France), Henry of Navarre (leader of the Huguenots), and Henry, Duke of Guise (leader of the Catholic League).

• What happened: The conflict was centered around religious and political power struggles between Catholics and Protestants in France. Henry III sought to maintain control over France, while Henry of Navarre, a Protestant, aimed to ascend the throne, and Henry of Guise led the Catholic faction.

• Impact: The war ended with the assassination of Henry of Guise and the eventual victory of Henry of Navarre, who later became Henry IV of France. His conversion to Catholicism and the issuing of the Edict of Nantes helped bring an end to the religious wars.

• Role in AP Euro: Highlights the intense religious and political conflict in France during the late 16th century, marking a key moment in the struggle between Catholicism and Protestantism in Europe.

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

• What it is: The St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, occurring on August 24, 1572, was a brutal attack on Huguenots (French Protestants) in Paris, which spread to other parts of France.

• What happened: Catholic mobs, incited by Queen Catherine de Medici and her supporters, killed thousands of Huguenots who had gathered in Paris for the wedding of Henry of Navarre (later Henry IV) to Margaret of Valois.

• Impact: The massacre deepened the religious divisions in France, intensifying the French Wars of Religion and causing widespread fear and distrust between Catholics and Protestants.

• Role in AP Euro: Illustrates the extreme violence of religious conflict during the Reformation, and its impact on political power, leading to further instability and the eventual rise of Bourbon rule in France.

Edict of Nantes

• What it is: The Edict of Nantes, issued in 1598 by Henry IV of France, granted religious tolerance to Huguenots (French Protestants) and ended the French Wars of Religion.

• What it did: It allowed Huguenots to practice their religion freely in certain areas, granted them political rights, and gave them the right to hold fortified towns. However, Catholicism remained the official religion of France.

• Impact: The edict brought relative peace to France after decades of religious conflict, stabilizing the country and helping to consolidate Henry IV’s rule. It was later revoked by Louis XIV in 1685, leading to renewed persecution of Protestants.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents efforts to reconcile religious divisions and the early steps toward religious tolerance in Europe, as well as the political importance of controlling religious conflict for maintaining power.

Jacobins

• Who they are: The Jacobins were a radical political group during the French Revolution, initially formed as the Society of the Friends of the Constitution. Led by figures like Maximilien Robespierre, they were influential during the Reign of Terror (1793–1794).

• What they did: The Jacobins advocated for a republic, radical social reforms, and the use of violence to defend the Revolution. They played a central role in the execution of King Louis XVI and the establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal.

• Impact: The Jacobins were responsible for many of the harsh measures during the Reign of Terror, which included mass executions of perceived enemies of the Revolution. Their power waned after Robespierre's fall in 1794, leading to the end of the Terror.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the extreme radicalism and violence that emerged during the French Revolution, illustrating the tensions between revolutionary ideals and the need for political control during times of crisis.

Committee of Public Safety

• What it is: The Committee of Public Safety was a powerful executive body created by the National Convention during the French Revolution in 1793. It was responsible for overseeing the government's response to internal and external threats.

• What it did: Led by figures like Maximilien Robespierre, the Committee became the de facto government during the Reign of Terror. It was tasked with defending the Revolution, managing military campaigns, and suppressing counter-revolutionary activity, using extreme measures such as mass executions.

• Impact: The Committee’s actions led to the deaths of thousands during the Reign of Terror, but it also helped secure the Revolution from both royalist and foreign threats. Its fall in 1794 marked the end of the Terror and the beginning of a more moderate phase of the Revolution.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the radical phase of the French Revolution, showing the lengths to which revolutionary leaders were willing to go to protect and preserve the new republican state, and the dangers of centralized, authoritarian power during periods of crisis.

Robespierre

• Who he is: Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) was a leading figure of the French Revolution and a key member of the Jacobin Club. He was influential during the Reign of Terror, where he was known for his radical policies and leadership.

• What he did: Robespierre was a strong advocate for the rights of the people and believed in the necessity of virtue and terror to secure the Revolution. He played a central role in the Committee of Public Safety, overseeing mass executions of perceived enemies of the Revolution.

• Impact: Robespierre’s policies and the Reign of Terror resulted in thousands of deaths, but his fall in 1794 (during the Thermidorian Reaction) marked the end of the Terror and the beginning of a more moderate phase in the Revolution.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the extreme radicalism and the dangers of revolutionary ideologies when unchecked by political moderation, showing the tension between revolutionary ideals and authoritarian measures.

Thermidorian Reaction

• What it is: The Thermidorian Reaction (1794) was a period of relaxation and de-escalation following the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the end of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution.

• What happened: After Robespierre's execution in July 1794, the National Convention took control and moved to dismantle the extreme measures of the Terror. Many of the radical policies were reversed, and more moderate leaders took power.

• Impact: The Thermidorian Reaction ended the radical phase of the Revolution, leading to the release of political prisoners, the relaxation of censorship, and the start of a more conservative period. It also marked the decline of the Jacobins and the rise of the Directory.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the shift from radical revolution to political moderation, demonstrating how revolutionary movements can evolve and shift away from their original ideals.

The Directory

• What it is: The Directory (1795–1799) was the five-member executive body that governed France following the fall of Robespierre and the end of the Reign of Terror. It was established by the Constitution of Year III after the Thermidorian Reaction.

• What it did: The Directory was characterized by political instability, corruption, and economic challenges. It attempted to maintain control through military force and political maneuvering but struggled to address France's financial and social problems.

• Impact: The Directory’s inability to solve France's issues, along with widespread dissatisfaction, contributed to its downfall. In 1799, it was overthrown in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte, marking the end of the French Revolution and the rise of the Napoleonic Empire.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the unstable, moderate phase of the French Revolution, showcasing the challenges of governing during times of social upheaval and the eventual emergence of authoritarian leadership.

Napoleon

• Who he is: Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) was a French military leader and emperor who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and its subsequent wars. He became Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814 and briefly returned to power in 1815 during the Hundred Days.

• What he did: Napoleon is known for his military genius, his reforms in France (such as the Napoleonic Code), and his efforts to expand French territory through a series of wars known as the Napoleonic Wars. He established a large European empire but was ultimately defeated and exiled after his failed invasion of Russia and the Battle of Waterloo.

• Impact: Napoleon reshaped Europe through his conquests and reforms, spreading revolutionary ideals like legal equality and secular governance. His defeat led to the Congress of Vienna, which sought to restore the pre-revolutionary European order.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the rise and fall of revolutionary ideals, the spread of nationalism, and the transition from the French Revolution to the Napoleonic Era. His reign also had a lasting impact on European political structures and the balance of power.

Code Napoleon

• What it is: The Napoleonic Code, or Code Civil, was a comprehensive set of laws enacted by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804 to reform the legal system of France. It became a model for legal codes in many other countries.

• What it did: The Code standardized laws across France, ensuring equality before the law, protection of private property, and civil liberties. It also reinforced the authority of the state and patriarchal family structure, limiting women's rights and promoting male dominance in marriage and inheritance.

• Impact: The Napoleonic Code influenced legal systems worldwide, promoting the spread of civil law traditions. It also helped consolidate Napoleon's power by bringing legal order to a post-revolutionary society.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the institutionalization of revolutionary ideals, such as equality before the law and secular governance, and highlights Napoleon's lasting legacy on legal reforms in Europe and beyond.

Guerilla war in Spain

• What it is: The guerrilla war in Spain (1808–1814) was a series of military actions by Spanish resistance fighters against Napoleon's French forces during the Peninsular War.

• What happened: After Napoleon invaded Spain and deposed the Spanish monarchy, Spanish guerrilla fighters, supported by British forces under Wellington, engaged in irregular warfare, using ambushes, sabotage, and hit-and-run tactics against the French.

• Impact: The guerrilla tactics severely disrupted French operations, leading to heavy losses and contributing to Napoleon's eventual defeat in the Peninsular War. The conflict drained French resources and morale.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the rise of nationalism and resistance to foreign occupation, illustrating how non-traditional military tactics can significantly impact large-scale military campaigns. The Spanish guerrilla warfare is also a precursor to the spread of nationalism across Europe.

New Monarchies

• What they are: The New Monarchies refer to the centralizing and consolidating efforts of European monarchs in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. These monarchs, such as Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Louis XI of France, and Henry VII of England, sought to strengthen their power by reducing the influence of nobles and other regional powers.

• What they did: The New Monarchs implemented reforms to centralize authority, build stronger bureaucracies, and establish standing armies. They also sought to increase royal control over the church and manage finances through efficient taxation.

• Impact: The New Monarchies helped pave the way for the rise of the modern nation-state, as they increased the power of the monarchy and decreased feudal fragmentation. Their efforts set the stage for the centralization of power that would later characterize absolute monarchies in Europe.

• Role in AP Euro: Illustrates the early shift from feudalism to centralized state power, showing the political transformations that laid the groundwork for later developments like absolute monarchy and the modern nation-state.

Catherine the Great

• Who she is: Catherine the Great (1729–1796) was Empress of Russia from 1762 until her death, one of the most significant and longest-reigning female monarchs in Russian history.

• What she did: Catherine expanded the Russian Empire through military victories, particularly over the Ottoman Empire and Poland. She implemented reforms in law and education, promoted the arts, and sought to modernize Russia along Western European lines. However, she maintained the power of the nobility and failed to address the condition of serfs, leading to unrest.

• Impact: Catherine's reign significantly expanded Russia’s territorial holdings and cultural influence, enhancing its status as a major European power. Her reign also marked the spread of Enlightenment ideals in Russia, although her failure to address serfdom and her reliance on nobility foreshadowed the tensions that would later contribute to revolutionary movements.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the influence of Enlightenment ideas on absolutism, illustrating the balance between modernization and maintaining traditional power structures, as well as the growth of imperialism and the limitations of reform.

Frederick II of Prussia

• Who he is: Frederick II of Prussia, also known as Frederick the Great (1712–1786), was King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. He is one of the most prominent enlightened absolutist rulers.

• What he did: Frederick expanded Prussia’s territory through military victories, particularly in the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. He enacted reforms in the legal system, promoted religious tolerance, and encouraged economic growth through agriculture and industry. He also modernized the Prussian military and promoted the arts and education.

• Impact: Frederick strengthened Prussia as a European power, increasing its influence and territory. His reforms laid the groundwork for later European state-building efforts, though his policies did not significantly change the feudal structure or the power of the nobility.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the application of Enlightenment principles within an absolutist framework, demonstrating the tension between enlightened reforms and the preservation of absolute monarchy. His reign contributed to the development of modern European military, legal, and economic systems.

Joseph II of Austria

• Who he is: Joseph II of Austria (1741–1790) was Holy Roman Emperor and the ruler of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia from 1765 until his death. He is known as one of the most radical enlightened absolutists.

• What he did: Joseph II implemented sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing the Habsburg Empire, including the abolition of serfdom, religious tolerance, and the centralization of administrative control. He sought to streamline the legal system, promote education, and improve the welfare of his subjects. However, many of his reforms were unpopular and met with resistance from the nobility, church, and peasantry.

• Impact: His reign is remembered for the ambitious reforms that aimed to modernize the empire, though many of his policies were reversed after his death due to their unpopularity and the challenges of enforcement. His efforts are seen as a precursor to later liberal reforms in Europe.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the tensions between Enlightenment ideals and traditional power structures, illustrating the difficulties of implementing radical reforms in an absolute monarchy. His reign highlights the limitations of enlightened absolutism and the resistance to change from entrenched institutions.

Dutch War

• What it is: The Dutch War (1672–1678), also known as the Franco-Dutch War, was a conflict in which France, led by Louis XIV, fought against the Dutch Republic, along with England and several German states, during a time of intense European rivalries.

• What they did: France, seeking to expand its influence in Europe and weaken the Dutch Republic, invaded the Netherlands. The Dutch, led by William III of Orange, managed to form alliances with other European powers, including Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, to repel the French forces.

• Impact: The war resulted in significant territorial losses for the Dutch, but they managed to preserve their independence and commercial power. The Treaty of Nijmegen (1678) ended the war, marking a temporary peace and shifting the balance of power in Europe.

• Role in AP Euro: Demonstrates the ongoing struggles for territorial dominance in Europe during the 17th century, particularly between France and the Dutch Republic, and highlights the role of alliances and diplomacy in shaping European politics during this period.

Nine Years’ War

• What it is: The Nine Years' War (1688–1697), also known as the War of the Grand Alliance, was a major European conflict involving France, led by Louis XIV, against a coalition of European powers, including England, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Dutch Republic.

• What they did: The war was fought primarily over French territorial expansion and the balance of power in Europe. France's aggressive military campaigns, particularly in the Spanish Netherlands and the Rhine, prompted the formation of the Grand Alliance. The war included battles across Europe, the Caribbean, and North America.

• Impact: The war ended with the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, which restored the pre-war territorial status quo but marked the decline of France's expansionist ambitions. It highlighted the importance of alliances in maintaining a balance of power in Europe.

• Role in AP Euro: Illustrates the ongoing power struggles and the development of the balance of power system in Europe, where nations sought to prevent any single state (especially France) from becoming too dominant. It also sets the stage for future conflicts in the 18th century.

Gustavus Adolphus

• Who he is: Gustavus Adolphus (1594–1632), also known as Gustav II Adolf, was the King of Sweden from 1611 until his death in 1632. He is renowned for his military reforms and leadership during the Thirty Years' War.

• What he did: Gustavus Adolphus transformed Sweden into a major European power by implementing military reforms, including the use of mobile artillery and disciplined infantry, which made Sweden a formidable military force. He led Sweden into the Thirty Years' War, initially siding with the Protestant cause and achieving several key victories before being killed at the Battle of Lützen in 1632.

• Impact: His leadership and military innovations significantly influenced the outcome of the Thirty Years' War, bolstering the Protestant cause and increasing Sweden’s influence in European politics. His death, however, weakened Sweden's position in the war.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the role of military innovation and leadership in early modern warfare, as well as the intersection of religious and political conflicts during the Thirty Years' War. His reign marks a period of Swedish imperial expansion and the rise of military power in northern Europe.

Peter the Great

• Who he is: Peter the Great (1672–1725) was Tsar of Russia from 1682 until his death and is best known for his efforts to modernize and westernize Russia.

• What he did: Peter implemented a series of reforms aimed at modernizing Russia along Western European lines, including overhauling the military, creating a navy, reforming the government, and promoting education. He also expanded Russian territory through military campaigns, notably defeating Sweden in the Great Northern War, which secured Russian access to the Baltic Sea. Peter also founded St. Petersburg, a new capital city designed to be Russia's "window to the West."

• Impact: Peter's reforms transformed Russia into a major European power, modernizing its military and government and opening up trade with Europe. His westernization efforts, however, were met with resistance from the nobility and clergy, and many of his policies were harsh.

• Role in AP Euro: Peter the Great's reign represents the intersection of absolutism and Enlightenment ideals, as he pushed Russia towards modernity while maintaining strict autocratic control. His efforts to transform Russia helped to shape the empire’s future and had lasting impacts on European geopolitics.

Philip II of spain

• Philip II (1527–1598):

  • Who he is: Philip II was King of Spain from 1556 until his death and was one of the most powerful monarchs of the 16th century.

  • What he did: Known for his intense Catholicism, Philip sought to strengthen Spain's global empire, waging wars against Protestant states, particularly in the Netherlands, and the Ottoman Empire. He also led the failed invasion of England in 1588 (the Spanish Armada). His reign marked the height of Spanish power but also saw the beginning of its decline due to costly military campaigns and economic challenges.

  • Impact: Philip II's reign solidified Spain's position as a dominant European power but set the stage for its eventual decline due to military overextension and financial instability.

  • Role in AP Euro: Represents the height of Spanish absolutism and Catholic influence during the Counter-Reformation, showing the tensions between religious wars, military expansion, and economic challenges.

Philip III of spain

• Philip III (1578–1621):

  • Who he is: Philip III was King of Spain from 1598 to 1621, the son of Philip II.

  • What he did: His reign was marked by relative peace in comparison to his father’s wars, but he delegated much of the governance to his favorite, the Duke of Lerma, which led to a period of political instability and inefficiency. He focused on maintaining Spain's imperial holdings but failed to address growing internal problems.

  • Impact: Philip III's reliance on favorites undermined the monarchy’s effectiveness, contributing to the weakening of Spanish power and the rise of factionalism within the court.

  • Role in AP Euro: Represents the challenges of dynastic rule and the consequences of political decentralization during the Habsburg reign in Spain.

Philip IV of Spain

• Philip IV (1605–1665):

  • Who he is: Philip IV was King of Spain from 1621 until his death in 1665.

  • What he did: Like his father, Philip IV was involved in wars against France and the Dutch Republic, continuing the costly Habsburg military campaigns. Under the guidance of his prime minister, the Count-Duke of Olivares, Philip sought to revive Spain’s fortunes but faced mounting economic crises and rebellion in Spain's territories, including Catalonia and Portugal.

  • Impact: His reign witnessed the decline of Spanish influence in Europe, especially after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which resulted in the loss of Spain’s control over several European territories.

  • Role in AP Euro: Reflects the challenges faced by the Spanish Habsburgs in the 17th century, including military overextension, economic difficulties, and the weakening of central authority, which contributed to Spain's decline as a dominant European power.

Intendants

• What they are: Intendants were royal officials appointed by the French monarchy, particularly under the reign of Louis XIV, to oversee local administration, implement royal policies, and ensure the king’s authority was maintained across France.

• What they did: Intendants were responsible for tax collection, law enforcement, and the maintenance of order in the provinces. They acted as representatives of the monarchy in regions far from the royal court and helped centralize royal power by limiting the influence of local nobles.

• Impact: The system of intendants strengthened the absolute monarchy by reducing the power of the traditional feudal aristocracy and ensuring more direct control of the government from Paris. It also helped to enforce the king’s policies more effectively across the country.

• Role in AP Euro: Represents the consolidation of absolute monarchy, particularly during the reign of Louis XIV, and illustrates the methods used by monarchs to centralize power and weaken the influence of regional elites.

Age of Discovery

• A period (15th-17th centuries) of European exploration to find new trade routes, lands, and resources.

• Marked by maritime powers like Spain and Portugal expanding overseas.

• Driven by "God, Gold, and Glory" (religion, wealth, and fame).

Causes:

• Economic: Need for spices, gold, and direct trade routes to Asia.

• Religious: Spread Christianity and counter Islamic influence.

• Technological: Innovations like the caravel, compass, and maps.

• Political: Competition between European powers for global dominance.

Effects:

• Economic: Rise of global trade, mercantilism, and wealth for European nations.

• Social: Colonization and exploitation of indigenous peoples in the Americas and Africa.

• Cultural: Spread of European culture and Christianity; exchange of goods, ideas, and diseases (Columbian Exchange).

• Political: Strengthened monarchies through overseas empires; the rise of global imperialism.

Connection to AP Euro:

• Links to the Commercial Revolution, growth of capitalism, and Atlantic economy.

• Explains early European imperialism and the global consequences of exploration.

• Illustrates the impact of the Renaissance on curiosity and innovation.

Absolutism

• A system of government where the monarch holds centralized and unlimited power, often justified by divine right.

• Monarchs like Louis XIV of France and Peter the Great of Russia exemplified absolutism.

• Emerged in the 16th-17th centuries due to religious wars, declining feudalism, and rising national states.

• Relied on bureaucracies, standing armies, and control over nobility to maintain power.

• Louis XIV's reign showcased absolutism through centralized control, the construction of Versailles, and the suppression of dissent.

• Effects included strong, unified states but also suppression of individual liberties and opposition.

• Connected to AP Euro as a key political development, contrasting with constitutionalism (e.g., England's Glorious Revolution).

Enlightened Absolutism

• Enlightened Absolutism refers to monarchs who embraced some Enlightenment ideas but maintained absolute power.

• These rulers sought reforms in governance, law, and society to improve the state, while still centralizing control and maintaining their authority.

• Frederick the Great of Prussia: Promoted religious tolerance, legal reforms, and education, while strengthening the military and centralizing power.

• Catherine the Great of Russia: Introduced some reforms in law and education, and expanded Russian territory, though she limited changes to the serfs.

• Joseph II of Austria: Implemented extensive reforms like granting religious freedom, abolishing serfdom, and promoting education, though faced resistance that undermined many changes.

• These rulers tried to reconcile the ideas of the Enlightenment with the traditional power structures, creating a balance between progressive reforms and the preservation of absolute monarchical rule.

Market Economy

• A market economy is an economic system where prices and the distribution of goods and services are determined by supply and demand, with little government intervention.

• In a market economy, individuals and businesses make decisions about production, investment, and pricing based on market signals rather than central planning.

• Capitalism is the most common example of a market economy, where private ownership of property and businesses is emphasized.

• The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries significantly advanced market economies, as new technologies and factories boosted production and trade.

• A market economy promotes competition and innovation but can lead to economic inequality if left unchecked.

• In AP European History, the rise of market economies is tied to the development of commercial capitalism during the Renaissance, the growth of trade networks, and the rise of European empires.

Scientific Revolution

• The Scientific Revolution (16th-18th centuries) was a period of major advancements in science, transforming the way people understood the natural world.

• Key figures included Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed the heliocentric theory, Galileo Galilei, who advanced the study of astronomy with telescopic observations, and Isaac Newton, whose laws of motion and gravity laid the foundation for classical physics.

• The revolution was driven by new methods of inquiry, such as the scientific method, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and reasoning.

• It challenged traditional views, particularly those of the Church, and led to a shift towards rationalism and empiricism, influencing later Enlightenment thought.

• The Scientific Revolution contributed to the rise of modern science, with lasting impacts on technology, philosophy, and society.

• In AP European History, it represents a key turning point in intellectual history, shaping the development of European thought and contributing to the decline of medieval and religious authority.

Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment (17th-18th centuries) was an intellectual movement emphasizing reason, individual rights, and skepticism of traditional authority.

• Key thinkers included John Locke (natural rights and government by consent), Voltaire (freedom of speech and religion), and Montesquieu (separation of powers).

• Enlightenment ideas criticized absolute monarchy, promoted democracy, and encouraged scientific progress and education.

• The movement influenced political revolutions, such as the American Revolution and French Revolution, and reforms in governance and society.

• Enlightenment salons and writings spread these ideas across Europe, challenging religious and feudal traditions.

• In AP European History, the Enlightenment is a critical era that shaped modern political ideologies, social reforms, and intellectual advancements.

Reformation

• The Reformation (16th century) was a religious movement that challenged the authority and practices of the Catholic Church, leading to the rise of Protestantism.

• Sparked by figures like Martin Luther, who criticized Church corruption (e.g., indulgences) through his 95 Theses, and John Calvin, who emphasized predestination and strict moral discipline.

• Political leaders, like Henry VIII of England, also broke from the Catholic Church for personal and political reasons, forming the Anglican Church.

• It led to the fragmentation of Christendom, with the creation of Protestant denominations like Lutheranism and Calvinism.

• Effects included religious wars (e.g., Thirty Years' War), the Counter-Reformation, and greater emphasis on individual faith and scripture.

• In AP European History, the Reformation is a pivotal event that reshaped religion, politics, and society in Europe, weakening Church authority and paving the way for modern secularism.

Natural Religion

• Natural religion refers to a belief system based on reason and observation of the natural world rather than revelation or sacred texts.

• It emphasizes that knowledge of God or a higher power can be derived from nature, human reason, and moral law.

• Popular during the Enlightenment, natural religion was often associated with Deism, which rejected organized religion and miracles but believed in a rational Creator.

• Thinkers like Voltaire and John Locke supported ideas of natural religion, focusing on universal moral principles rather than dogma.

• In AP European History, natural religion reflects the shift away from traditional Church authority during the Enlightenment, contributing to debates about faith, science, and reason.

Sir Isaac Newton

• Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) was a key figure in the Scientific Revolution, known for his groundbreaking contributions to physics, mathematics, and astronomy.

• His work Principia Mathematica (1687) outlined the laws of motion and universal gravitation, revolutionizing the understanding of the natural world.

• Newton also contributed to the development of calculus and advanced optics by studying the behavior of light and color.

• He emphasized the use of the scientific method, combining observation, experimentation, and mathematical reasoning.

• In AP European History, Newton symbolizes the triumph of reason and science during the Scientific Revolution, influencing the Enlightenment and shaping modern scientific thought.

Johannes Kepler

• Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was a German astronomer and mathematician who advanced the Scientific Revolution with his laws of planetary motion.

• He demonstrated that planets orbit the sun in elliptical paths rather than perfect circles, correcting and expanding on Copernicus's heliocentric theory.

• Kepler’s three laws of motion explained the speed and distances of planets in relation to the sun, combining mathematics with astronomical observations.

• His work supported Galileo and Newton, helping to establish the foundation for modern astronomy and physics.

• In AP European History, Kepler represents the shift to a scientific, mathematical approach to understanding the universe, challenging traditional geocentric views upheld by the Church.

Galileo

• Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and key figure in the Scientific Revolution.

• He improved the telescope and used it to make groundbreaking observations, such as discovering Jupiter's moons, sunspots, and the phases of Venus, which supported Copernicus's heliocentric theory.

• Galileo's work in mechanics, including the study of motion and inertia, laid the groundwork for modern physics.

• His advocacy for heliocentrism led to conflict with the Catholic Church, resulting in his trial by the Inquisition and house arrest.

• In AP European History, Galileo symbolizes the tension between science and religion, as well as the triumph of observation and experimentation in advancing human knowledge.

Francois Quesnay

• François Quesnay (1694–1774) was a French economist and leader of the Physiocrats, an economic school that emphasized agriculture as the source of wealth.

• He argued that economic productivity depended on land and farming, advocating for a laissez-faire approach with minimal government interference in the economy.

• His most notable work, the Tableau Économique, outlined the flow of wealth in an economy, highlighting the importance of natural resources and agricultural output.

• Quesnay opposed mercantilism, focusing instead on free trade and the idea that economic growth arose from allowing natural economic laws to operate.

• In AP European History, Quesnay reflects Enlightenment ideas applied to economics, influencing later thinkers like Adam Smith and promoting concepts foundational to modern economic theory.

Baron d’Holbach

• Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789) was a French philosopher and prominent figure in the Enlightenment.

• He was a strong advocate for atheism and materialism, arguing that human behavior and the universe were governed by natural laws, not divine intervention.

• In his work The System of Nature (1770), d'Holbach argued that everything, including human thought and morality, was determined by physical forces and could be explained without recourse to religion.

• His views were controversial, particularly his rejection of God and traditional religious beliefs, which put him at odds with both church authorities and many Enlightenment thinkers who were more moderate.

• In AP European History, d'Holbach represents the more radical aspects of the Enlightenment, advocating for secularism and the idea of a purely materialistic, deterministic universe.

Rousseau

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was a Swiss-born French philosopher and writer, a key figure in the Enlightenment and Romanticism.

• His most famous works include The Social Contract (1762), where he introduced the idea of the general will as the basis of legitimate political authority and argued that individuals could achieve true freedom only by participating in a democratic society.

• Rousseau believed that civilization corrupts human nature, advocating for a return to a simpler, more egalitarian society in harmony with nature.

• His ideas on education were outlined in Emile (1762), promoting the idea that education should focus on the development of the child’s natural abilities rather than strict discipline.

• In AP European History, Rousseau is significant for his influence on the French Revolution, especially his concept of popular sovereignty and his challenge to social hierarchies, which inspired later revolutionary thought.

Handel and Bach

• George Frideric Handel (1685–1759) was a German-born Baroque composer who became famous in England, particularly for his oratorios like Messiah (1741), which is still widely performed today.

• Handel's music combined Italian operatic style with English choral traditions, creating dramatic, expressive compositions with rich, layered textures.

• Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) was a German composer and musician, considered one of the greatest composers in Western music history. His works, such as The Brandenburg Concertos and Mass in B Minor, are celebrated for their complexity, counterpoint, and harmonic depth.

• Bach was deeply religious, and his music often reflected his devotion, with many works written for the Church, including his famous St. Matthew Passion and Well-Tempered Clavier.

• In AP European History, both composers represent the Baroque era's cultural flourishing, showcasing how art and music became central to European identity and religious expression, influencing the development of classical music.

Pantheon in Paris

• The Pantheon in Paris, originally built as a church dedicated to St. Genevieve, was completed in 1790 and later transformed into a secular mausoleum.

• It houses the remains of prominent figures in French history, including Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Victor Hugo, and Émile Zola.

• Architecturally, the Pantheon is a neoclassical structure, influenced by Roman temple designs, with a large dome and Corinthian columns, symbolizing the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and rationality.

• The building’s transformation reflects the political and cultural shifts during the French Revolution, from religious to secular authority.

• In AP European History, the Pantheon is significant for its connection to both the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, representing the era's shift toward honoring secular achievements and ideas.

Jane Austin

• Jane Austen (1775–1817) was an English novelist known for her keen social commentary, wit, and mastery of romantic fiction.

• Her most famous works include Pride and Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility, Emma, and Mansfield Park, which often focus on the lives, relationships, and moral dilemmas of the British landed gentry.

• Austen’s novels explore themes such as marriage, class, gender, and social mobility, often critiquing the limitations placed on women in her society.

• Although published anonymously during her lifetime, Austen’s works gained immense popularity posthumously, and she is now considered one of the most important figures in English literature.

• In AP European History, Austen’s writing is significant for its insights into the social and cultural life of Regency-era England, reflecting both the ideals and tensions of the time, particularly concerning gender and class structures.

Joseph II of Austria

• Joseph II of Austria (1741–1790) was an Enlightened Absolutist ruler who sought to modernize the Habsburg Empire through a series of sweeping reforms.

• He implemented policies that promoted religious tolerance, abolished serfdom, and reformed the legal system, aiming to create a more efficient and just state.

• Joseph's reforms also extended to education, the economy, and centralization of power, attempting to reduce the influence of the Church and aristocracy.

• Despite his idealistic goals, many of his reforms faced resistance from the nobility and the Catholic Church, and several were rolled back after his death.

• In AP European History, Joseph II is significant for exemplifying the tensions within Enlightened Absolutism—his attempts to balance Enlightenment ideals with the realities of governance, often facing resistance to his reforms.

Maria Theresa of Austria

• Maria Theresa of Austria (1717–1780) was the Archduchess of Austria, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and Empress of the Holy Roman Empire, ruling from 1740 until her death.

• She was a capable and reform-minded ruler, known for her efforts to strengthen and centralize the Habsburg Empire.

• Maria Theresa implemented significant reforms in areas such as education, taxation, and military organization, aiming to modernize the state and improve the welfare of her people. She also worked to curb the power of the nobility and Church.

• Although she was an absolute monarch, she worked with Enlightenment thinkers and was influenced by their ideas, though her reforms were often cautious and conservative compared to other enlightened rulers.

• In AP European History, Maria Theresa is significant for her role in strengthening the Habsburg Empire during the 18th century, balancing reforms with the need to maintain traditional structures of power.

Deism

• Deism is a philosophical belief that emerged during the Enlightenment, emphasizing reason, morality, and natural law over traditional religious doctrines.

• Deists believe in a creator who designed the universe and established natural laws but does not intervene in human affairs or perform miracles.

• This view rejects organized religion, claiming that religious truth can be discovered through human reason and the observation of nature rather than through scripture or revelation.

• Key figures such as Voltaire, Thomas Paine, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were associated with Deism, which influenced Enlightenment thought by promoting religious tolerance and questioning traditional authority.

• In AP European History, Deism represents the intellectual shift toward secularism and reason, challenging traditional religious beliefs and contributing to the development of modern thought.

Seven Years’ War

• The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict involving most of the great powers of the time, including Great Britain, France, Prussia, and Austria.

• It was fought in multiple theaters, including Europe, North America (known as the French and Indian War), the Caribbean, West Africa, and India, largely over colonial and territorial control.

• The war ended with the Treaty of Paris (1763), which resulted in Britain gaining significant territories, including Canada and Florida, while France ceded Louisiana to Spain.

• In Europe, Prussia, under Frederick the Great, successfully defended itself against Austrian, French, and Russian forces, maintaining control over Silesia.

• In AP European History, the Seven Years' War is significant for reshaping the global balance of power, marking the rise of Britain as the world's dominant colonial power and signaling the decline of French influence in North America.

Declaration of Rights of Man

• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) was a fundamental document of the French Revolution, proclaiming the inherent rights of individuals and the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

• It was inspired by the Enlightenment, particularly the ideas of John Locke and the American Declaration of Independence, and aimed to outline the basic rights of citizens in a new French republic.

• The Declaration included principles such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, due process of law, and the right to property, asserting that all men are born free and equal in rights.

• It marked a key moment in the French Revolution, challenging the absolute monarchy and the privileges of the aristocracy and clergy.

• In AP European History, the Declaration is significant as it laid the groundwork for the French Republic, promoted Enlightenment values, and influenced later revolutionary movements worldwide.

Olympe de Gouges

• Olympe de Gouges (1748–1793) was a French playwright and political activist best known for her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791), which challenged the French Revolution's failure to address women's rights.

• In her declaration, she argued that women should have the same rights as men, including the right to vote, own property, and participate in public life.

• De Gouges was a vocal advocate for gender equality and social reform, speaking out against the oppression of women and advocating for progressive social policies.

• Despite her revolutionary ideals, de Gouges was executed by the guillotine in 1793 during the Reign of Terror, largely due to her political activism and outspoken criticisms of the government.

• In AP European History, Olympe de Gouges is significant for her pioneering role in advocating for women's rights during the French Revolution, highlighting the intersection of revolutionary politics and gender inequality.

National Assembly

• The National Assembly (1789–1791) was a key political body in the early stages of the French Revolution, formed by representatives of the Third Estate (commoners) who broke away from the Estates-General after being locked out of its meeting.

• The Assembly's main goal was to create a new constitution for France, establishing a constitutional monarchy and limiting the power of King Louis XVI.

• It passed critical reforms, including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), which outlined individual freedoms and equality before the law, and worked to abolish feudal privileges.

• The National Assembly transitioned into the Legislative Assembly in 1791, but its work set the foundation for the radical phases of the French Revolution, including the rise of the First Republic.

• In AP European History, the National Assembly is significant for initiating the transformation of France from an absolute monarchy to a republic, signaling the decline of the traditional social and political order in Europe.

Constitution of 1791 (France)

• The Constitution of 1791 was the first written constitution of the French Revolution, created by the National Assembly to establish a constitutional monarchy in France.

• It limited the powers of King Louis XVI, who remained head of state but was now subject to the laws of the nation. The constitution established a legislative assembly to make laws, marking a shift from absolute monarchy to a system with a separation of powers.

• The constitution granted voting rights to active citizens (taxpaying men), but excluded women and the lower classes from political participation. It also reformed the legal and judicial systems, creating a more uniform structure across the country.

• The Constitution of 1791 was short-lived, as it faced resistance from royalists and radicals, and the king's flight to Varennes in 1791 undermined its effectiveness, eventually leading to the establishment of the First French Republic in 1792.

• In AP European History, the Constitution of 1791 is significant for attempting to institutionalize Enlightenment principles of government, marking a pivotal moment in the shift from monarchy to republicanism during the French Revolution.

Jacobins

• The Jacobins were a radical political group during the French Revolution, originally formed as the Society of the Friends of the Constitution in 1789. They were one of the most influential factions, known for their support of revolutionary ideals and the establishment of a republic in France.

• Led by figures like Maximilien Robespierre, Jean-Paul Marat, and Georges Danton, the Jacobins advocated for the abolition of the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and the use of terror to protect the revolution.

• They played a key role during the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), where they used extreme measures, including executions by guillotine, to suppress counter-revolutionary activity and consolidate power.

• The Jacobins were initially dominant in the National Convention, but their influence waned after the fall of Robespierre in 1794, leading to the group's decline.

• In AP European History, the Jacobins are significant for their radical approach to the revolution, their role in shaping the early French Republic, and their connection to the Reign of Terror and the rise of republicanism in France.

Committee of Public Safety

• The Committee of Public Safety (1793–1795) was a government body established by the National Convention during the French Revolution, primarily to protect the revolution from both internal and external threats.

• It was led by Maximilien Robespierre and other radical Jacobins and played a central role in the Reign of Terror, overseeing the mass execution of perceived enemies of the revolution, including royalists, Girondins, and counter-revolutionaries.

• The Committee had broad powers, including control over the military, the justice system, and revolutionary tribunals, to maintain order and stability during the revolution's most turbulent period.

• The Committee's actions led to the arrest and execution of many, including Danton and destructive political infighting, ultimately culminating in Robespierre's own execution in 1794, which marked the end of the Reign of Terror.

• In AP European History, the Committee of Public Safety is significant for its role in the radicalization of the French Revolution and the rise of revolutionary terror as a political tool.

October March on Versailles

• The October March on Versailles (October 5–6, 1789) was a key event in the French Revolution, where a large crowd of women, angry over bread shortages and high prices, marched from Paris to the Palace of Versailles.

• The march was sparked by economic hardship, as the common people were suffering from food scarcity and rising bread prices, and they sought to demand action from King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette.

• The protesters, joined by other Parisians, stormed the palace, demanding that the king and queen return to Paris to address their grievances. This marked a shift in power, as the royal family was effectively taken captive and brought back to the capital.

• The event symbolized the growing power of the people and the collapse of royal authority, leading to further revolutionary actions and the eventual downfall of the monarchy.

• In AP European History, the October March is significant for its role in intensifying the revolution, highlighting the power of popular protest, and signaling the beginning of the monarchy's loss of control over the political landscape in France.

Edmund Burke

• Edmund Burke (1729–1797) was an Irish-born British statesman, philosopher, and political theorist, best known for his opposition to the French Revolution and his defense of traditional institutions.

• Burke argued in his famous work, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), that the revolutionaries were blindly destroying the established order, which he believed provided stability and order in society. He emphasized the importance of tradition, gradual change, and respect for long-standing institutions like the monarchy and the church.

• Burke's views contrasted sharply with those of revolutionaries like Thomas Paine and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who favored radical change. He warned that the French Revolution would lead to chaos, anarchy, and the rise of tyranny.

• In AP European History, Burke is significant as an early critic of the Enlightenment-inspired revolutions, influencing conservative thought and providing a foundation for later reactions against revolutionary movements in Europe.

Napoleon

• Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) was a military leader and emperor of France who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and became one of the most influential figures in European history.

• After a series of successful military campaigns, he became the First Consul of France in 1799 following the Coup of 18 Brumaire, later declaring himself Emperor of the French in 1804.

• Napoleon is known for his military genius, leading France to victories across Europe and establishing a vast empire. His Napoleonic Code reformed the legal system and became a model for many countries.

• His empire eventually collapsed after a series of defeats, culminating in his exile to Elba in 1814, his brief return (the Hundred Days), and final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, after which he was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died.

• In AP European History, Napoleon is significant for his role in reshaping Europe, spreading nationalism, and promoting the ideals of the French Revolution (such as equality and legal rights), while also establishing authoritarian rule. His legacy continues to influence European politics, law, and military strategy.

Concordat of 1801

• The Concordat of 1801 was an agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and the Pope that aimed to resolve tensions between the French government and the Catholic Church, which had been strained since the French Revolution.

• The Concordat recognized Catholicism as the religion of the majority of the French people but established religious freedom for other faiths. It also allowed the French government to appoint bishops, while the Pope retained the authority to confirm appointments, giving Napoleon significant control over the Church in France.

• The agreement restored many privileges to the Church, such as control over some property, but also ensured that the Church would not challenge the authority of the state. It was part of Napoleon's efforts to consolidate power and gain support from various segments of French society.

• In AP European History, the Concordat is significant for its role in reconciling the Church with the French state, strengthening Napoleon's political position, and helping to stabilize France after the upheavals of the Revolution.

Code Napoleon

• The Code Napoléon (also known as the Napoleonic Code) was a comprehensive set of civil laws established by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804 to reform and standardize the legal system in France.

• It emphasized equality before the law, property rights, and the protection of individual liberties, abolishing feudal privileges and many of the old laws from the Ancien Régime. It was influenced by Enlightenment principles and sought to provide clear, uniform laws across France.

• The Code served as the foundation for legal systems in many other countries, spreading to territories Napoleon controlled, such as Italy, Spain, and Latin America, and it remains influential in civil law traditions today.

• In AP European History, the Napoleonic Code is significant for promoting legal equality and shaping modern legal frameworks, while also consolidating Napoleon's authority by centralizing legal power under the state.

Romanticism

• Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that began in the late 18th century and reached its peak in the 19th century, emphasizing emotion, individualism, nature, and the sublime over reason, order, and classical ideals.

• Romanticism emerged as a reaction to the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, with a focus on the power of human emotion, imagination, and the connection between individuals and the natural world.

• Key themes of Romanticism included the celebration of the individual hero, the beauty of nature, the mystery of the unknown, and the exploration of intense emotions such as love, fear, and passion. It often opposed industrialization and the rationalization of society.

• In AP European History, Romanticism is significant for influencing major cultural developments in the 19th century, including literature, art, and political thought, fostering nationalism, and inspiring movements like romantic nationalism and the revolutionary ideas that shaped modern Europe.

Balance of Power

• The Balance of Power is a political theory and strategy in international relations, where no single nation or alliance is allowed to become so powerful that it can dominate others, maintaining stability and peace in the system.

• In Europe, the Balance of Power was a key principle during the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly after the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) and during the Congress of Vienna (1815), when European powers aimed to prevent any one state, like Napoleon's France, from becoming too dominant.

• The idea was to maintain peace through alliances, military strength, and diplomacy, ensuring that no country could upset the international order by overwhelming others. It was often achieved through shifting alliances and strategic diplomacy.

• In AP European History, the Balance of Power is significant for shaping European diplomacy, particularly in the context of the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna, and the subsequent political landscape of Europe in the 19th century, influencing conflicts and the formation of alliances.

Congress of Vienna

• The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) was a diplomatic conference held after the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte to reshape Europe and restore stability following the turmoil of the Napoleonic Wars. Representatives from major European powers, including Austria, Britain, Prussia, Russia, and France, negotiated the terms of peace.

• The main goals of the Congress were to restore monarchies, redraw national boundaries, and establish a Balance of Power that would prevent any one country from dominating Europe again. It resulted in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France and the redrawing of European borders, strengthening conservative monarchies while reducing France's territorial holdings.

• The Congress led to the establishment of a new diplomatic order and the creation of the Holy Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia) and the Quadruple Alliance (Austria, Britain, Prussia, Russia) to enforce peace and stability in Europe.

• In AP European History, the Congress of Vienna is significant for its role in shaping the 19th-century European political landscape, influencing the Concert of Europe and the ideologies of conservatism that dominated the period, and setting the stage for future revolutions and conflicts.

Sovereignty

• Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority or power of a state to govern itself without external interference. It involves the ability to make laws, control territory, conduct foreign relations, and manage domestic affairs.

• In the context of European history, sovereignty became a central concept in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which ended the Thirty Years' War and established the modern system of nation-states, recognizing the principle of territorial integrity and non-interference in a state's internal matters.

• Sovereignty also plays a significant role in international relations, where states are considered equal and independent, with the right to self-determination and control over their own affairs.

• In AP European History, sovereignty is significant for understanding the development of nation-states, the formation of international law, and the struggles for independence, especially during revolutions and in the post-colonial era.

Constitutional Monarchy

• A constitutional monarchy is a system of government in which a monarch shares power with a constitutionally established government, often a parliament. The monarch's powers are limited by law or by a legislative body, and they typically serve as symbolic heads of state, while political power rests with elected officials.

• In Europe, constitutional monarchies became more common in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly following the Glorious Revolution in Britain (1688), which limited the monarch's power through the English Bill of Rights and established parliamentary sovereignty.

• The French Revolution (1789) also contributed to the rise of constitutional monarchies, as France initially established a constitutional monarchy in 1791 before it eventually became a republic. Other countries, such as Spain, Belgium, and Italy, adopted constitutional monarchies during the 19th century.

• In AP European History, constitutional monarchy is significant for understanding the evolution of political systems, the shift of power from monarchs to parliaments, and the spread of democratic principles in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Glorious Revolution

• The Glorious Revolution (1688) was a peaceful overthrow of the Catholic monarch James II of England, resulting in the ascension of his Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband William III of Orange to the English throne.

• The revolution was driven by fears of Catholic absolutism, as James II had attempted to increase royal power and promote Catholicism in a predominantly Protestant England. A group of Protestant nobles invited William of Orange to intervene, leading to James fleeing to France without significant bloodshed.

• The Bill of Rights (1689), passed after the revolution, established limits on royal power, guaranteeing parliamentary supremacy, and setting the foundation for a constitutional monarchy in England, where the monarch could not rule without consent from Parliament.

• In AP European History, the Glorious Revolution is significant for the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England, the expansion of parliamentary power, and the influence it had on the development of modern democratic governance and the decline of absolute monarchy in Europe.

Copernicus

• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) was a Polish astronomer who developed the heliocentric theory, which proposed that the Sun (not the Earth) was the center of the universe, challenging the long-held geocentric model endorsed by the Catholic Church.

• His most famous work, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (1543), outlined his theory, suggesting that the Earth and other planets revolved around the Sun, and that the Earth also rotated daily on its axis.

• Copernicus' theory laid the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution, influencing later astronomers like Galileo and Kepler, and ultimately leading to a major shift in scientific thought about the cosmos.

• In AP European History, Copernicus is significant for initiating the scientific revolution, challenging traditional views, and encouraging new scientific methods based on observation and reasoning rather than relying on ancient authorities.

Francis Bacon

• Francis Bacon (1561–1626) was an English philosopher, scientist, and statesman who is considered one of the founders of the Scientific Method.

• He emphasized the importance of empiricism, advocating for knowledge based on observation, experimentation, and evidence rather than reliance on tradition or authority. His method involved systematic inquiry and inductive reasoning, outlined in works like Novum Organum (1620).

• Bacon’s ideas helped shift European intellectual thought toward a focus on scientific investigation and practical applications, influencing later thinkers like Newton and shaping the Scientific Revolution.

• In AP European History, Bacon is significant for promoting the scientific method as a cornerstone of modern science, contributing to the Scientific Revolution, and challenging traditional Aristotelian philosophy.

John Locke

• John Locke (1632–1704) was an English Enlightenment philosopher known as the "Father of Liberalism" for his influential ideas on natural rights, government, and individual liberty.

• In his works, particularly Two Treatises of Government (1689), Locke argued that people are born with natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and that governments exist to protect these rights through a social contract. If a government fails to do so, citizens have the right to revolt.

• Locke also emphasized the role of reason and empiricism, advocating for the importance of education and individual thought. His ideas significantly influenced the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence, and modern democratic principles.

• In AP European History, Locke is significant for advancing Enlightenment ideals of constitutional government, popular sovereignty, and individual rights, which challenged absolute monarchy and laid the groundwork for modern political thought.

Louis XIV

• Louis XIV (1638–1715), known as the "Sun King", was the King of France from 1643 to 1715 and is considered the epitome of absolute monarchy in Europe.

• He centralized power by reducing the influence of the nobility, controlling the military, and building the Palace of Versailles, which became a symbol of royal authority and a tool for keeping the nobility under his watch.

• Louis expanded France's borders through wars such as the War of the Spanish Succession and pursued policies of mercantilism under his finance minister Colbert, but his costly wars and extravagant spending strained France's finances.

• In AP European History, Louis XIV is significant for representing the height of absolutism, influencing the political structure of Europe, and contributing to long-term causes of the French Revolution through his centralization of power and financial mismanagement.

Louis XVI

• Louis XVI (1754–1793) was the King of France from 1774 until his deposition in 1792, ruling during the turbulent years leading up to and during the French Revolution.

• He inherited a financial crisis worsened by costly wars, including France's support for the American Revolution, and failed to address widespread economic inequality and discontent among the Third Estate.

• His indecision and resistance to reforms, including those proposed by the Estates-General and later the National Assembly, contributed to the escalation of revolutionary tensions.

• In 1793, after being tried for treason by the National Convention, Louis XVI was executed by guillotine, marking the end of the monarchy and the establishment of the First French Republic.

• In AP European History, Louis XVI is significant as a symbol of the failures of absolute monarchy, his role in the causes of the French Revolution, and the shift towards modern republicanism in Europe.

Civil Constitution of Clergy

• The Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790) was a law passed during the French Revolution that aimed to bring the Catholic Church in France under state control.

• It required clergy to swear an oath of loyalty to the French government and made bishops and priests elected positions, effectively subordinating the Church to the revolutionary government.

• This law caused a major split between revolutionaries and devout Catholics, with many clergy and faithful rejecting it, leading to widespread resistance and religious tension in France.

• In AP European History, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy is significant for its role in deepening the conflict between revolutionary ideals and religious tradition, contributing to divisions within France during the Revolution and fueling counter-revolutionary movements.

Girondians

• The Girondins were a moderate political faction during the French Revolution, representing the interests of the provinces and advocating for a constitutional government and gradual reforms.

• They supported the overthrow of the monarchy but opposed the radical policies of the Jacobins, particularly the execution of Louis XVI and the use of terror.

• The Girondins lost influence during the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), when the Jacobins, led by Robespierre, accused them of counter-revolutionary activities, leading to the arrest and execution of many Girondin leaders.

• In AP European History, the Girondins are significant for illustrating the internal divisions within the revolutionary movement and the growing radicalization of the French Revolution.