HDFS 311 final exam

Correlational study

Examines whether two variables are related; cannot determine causation.

Cross-sectional design

Compares different age groups at one point in time.

Longitudinal design

Follows the same individuals over time to observe developmental change.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to fit new information.

Equilibration

Balancing assimilation and accommodation to maintain cognitive stability.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget stage (0–2); learning through senses and motor actions.

Object permanence

understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.

Preoperational stage

Piaget stage (2–7); symbolic thinking but limited logic.

Egocentrism

Difficulty understanding others’ perspectives.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance

Concrete operational stage

Piaget stage (7–11); logical thinking about concrete objects.

Formal operational stage

Piaget stage (12+); abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

Development occurs through social interaction and cultural tools.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Gap between what a child can do alone and with help.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided to help a child learn within the ZPD.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model

Development influenced by nested environmental systems.

Microsystem

Immediate environments (family, school, peers).

Mesosystem

Interactions between microsystems (e.g., parent–teacher relationship).

Exosystem

Indirect environments that affect development (e.g., parent’s job).

Macrosystem

Cultural values, laws, and societal norms.

Chronosystem

Time-based changes and historical context.

Epigenetics

Environmental influences on gene expression without changing DNA.

Reaction range

Genetic limits on development influenced by environment.

Fine motor skills

Small muscle movements (grasping, writing).

Gross motor skills

Large body movements (walking, jumping).

Cephalocaudal development

Development proceeds from head to toe.

Proximodistal development

Development proceeds from center to extremities.

Attachment

Emotional bond between child and caregiver.

Secure attachment

Child is distressed by separation and comforted upon reunion.

Basic emotions

Early emotions (happiness, fear, anger, sadness).

Secondary emotions

Self-conscious emotions emerging around 18–24 months.

Theory of mind

Understanding others have thoughts different from one’s own.

False-belief task

Test of theory of mind mastery (around age 4–5).

Sensory register

Brief storage of sensory information.

Working memory

Temporary storage where active thinking occurs.

Long-term memory

Permanent memory store with unlimited capacity.

Retrieval

Accessing information from long-term memory.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to maintain memory.

Elaboration

Connecting new information to existing knowledge.

Organization

Structuring information into meaningful categories.

Metacognition .

Awareness and control of one’s own thinking

Self-regulated learning

Planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning strategies.

Spearman’s g

General intelligence underlying all cognitive abilities.

s-factors .

Specific abilities related to particular tasks

Sternberg’s analytic intelligence

Academic problem-solving skills.

Sternberg’s creative intelligence

Ability to generate novel ideas.

Sternberg’s practical intelligence

Applying knowledge to real-world situations.

Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Theory proposing multiple independent intelligences.

IQ

Standardized score measuring general cognitive ability.

Average IQ

Scores between 90–109.

Gifted IQ

Scores of 130 or above.

Self-determination theory

Motivation depends on competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Competence

Feeling capable and effective.

Autonomy

Feeling control and choice over actions.

Relatedness

Feeling connected to others.

Expectancy-value theory

Motivation depends on expectations for success and task value.

Utility value

How useful a task is for future goals.

Attainment value

Importance of a task to one’s identity.

Interest value

Enjoyment or interest in a task.

Cost

Perceived negatives of engaging in a task.

Peer modeling

Learning behaviors by observing peers.

Social reinforcement

Peer approval that strengthens behavior.

Well-liked status

High peer acceptance and prosocial behavior.

Rejected status

High peer dislike and risk for negative outcomes.

Bullying

Repeated aggressive behavior involving power imbalance.

Cyberbullying

Bullying through digital platforms.

Internalizing problems

Anxiety, depression, withdrawal.

Externalizing problems

Aggression, impulsivity, disruptive behavior.

Medical model of disability

Disability viewed as a problem within the individual.

Social model of disability

Disability created by environmental barriers.

PISA

International assessment comparing academic achievement across countries.

Numeracy

Basic number sense and quantity understanding.

Subitizing

Instantly recognizing small quantities without counting.

Phonological awareness

Ability to manipulate sounds in language.

Simple View of Reading

Reading = word recognition × language comprehension.

Dyslexia

Difficulty with decoding and fluent word reading.

ADHD

Disorder involving inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity.

Autism spectrum disorder

Differences in social communication and behavior.

Screen time recommendations

Limits vary by age; focus on balance and quality.

Generational context

Historical and cultural conditions shaping development.